VISUAL RESEARCH METHODS

Part – A

1. Unaided recall

· Unaided recall is a part of marketing research technique which is used to gauge the effectiveness of a brand

· It is to determine how well a consumer remembers an advertisement without any external help such as clues, or visuals.

2. Aided recall

· Aided Recall is a tool to measure the effectiveness of the brand

· Its recall among the consumers when they are given cues.

3. Confounding variable

· A confounding variable is an “extra” variable that you didn't account for.

· They can ruin an experiment and give you useless results.

· Amount of food consumption is a confounding variable

4. Reflexivity

· Reflexivity generally refers to the examination of one's own beliefs, judgments and practices during the research process.

· Reflexivity is the process of reflecting on yourself the researcher, to provide more effective and impartial analysis.

5. Tabulation

· Tabulation is a systematic & logical presentation of numeric data in rows and columns

· It facilitates comparison by bringing related information close to each other

6. Variable

· A variable is a characteristic or feature that varies, or changes within a study.

· If a study is investigating the differences between males and females, gender would be a variable

7. Ex post facto

· Ex post facto study or after-the-fact research is a category of research design in which the investigation starts after the fact has occurred without interference from the researcher.

· Ex - How weight influences self-esteem levels in adults. Here pre-existing characteristic (weight) was used to form the groups.

8. Participant observation

· The participant observation means watching the events or situation or activities from inside by taking part in the group to be observed.

· He freely interacts with the other group members, participates in various activities of the group, to study their behavior

9. Non participant observation

· When the observer observes the group passively from a distance without participating in the group activities, it is known as non-participant observation.

· Here he/she does not try to influence them or take part in the group activities.

10. Primary data

· Primary data is a type of data that is collected by researchers directly from main sources through interviews, surveys, experiments, etc.

· A primary source is an original source that documents an event in time, a person or an idea.

11. Secondary data

· Secondary data refers to data that is collected by someone other than the user.

· Common sources of secondary data include censuses, information collected by government departments, organizational records, etc.

12. Diagnosis

· A diagnosis in practice is a sequential process starting with a patient with a particular set of signs and symptoms.

· Diagnostic research should aim to quantify the added value of a test to clinical information that is commonly available before the test will be applied.

13. Descriptive research

· It describes the characteristics of the population or phenomenon studied.

· It focuses on describing the nature of a demographic segment, without focusing on “why” a particular phenomenon occurs.

14. Triangulation

· Triangulation is a method used to increase the credibility and validity of research findings.

· It can help ensure that fundamental biases arising from the use of a single method or a single observer are overcome.

15. Sampling error

· Sampling error is a statistical error that occurs when an analyst does not select a sample that represents the entire population of data.

· Sampling error occurs because a portion, and not the entire population, is surveyed

· Sampling errors can be eliminated when the sample size is increased.

16. Probability sampling

· A probability sampling method is any method of sampling that utilizes some form of random selection.

· It assures that the different units in the population have equal probabilities of being chosen

17. Non probability sampling

· Non-probability sampling is a sampling technique where the chances of any member being selected for a sample cannot be calculated.

· Non-probability sampling does not involve random selection

18. Semiotics

· Semiotics is an investigation into how meaning is created and how meaning is communicated.

· Meaning is communicated verbally, non-verbally and visually

· Example - Traffic signs, emojis, logos, etc

19. Sign

· The sign is the object that combines the signifier and the signified into a meaningful unit.

· The sign is the relationship between the concept and the representation of that concept.

20. Signifier

· The signifier is the sound associated with or image of something (e.g., a tree)

· Any material thing that signifies, e.g., words on a page, a facial expression, an image.

21. Signified

· The concept that a signifier refers to

· The signified is the idea or concept of the thing (e.g., the idea about a tree).

22. SPSS

· SPSS is short for Statistical Package for the Social Sciences

· It's used by various kinds of researchers for complex statistical data analysis.

23. ANOVA

· The acronym ANOVA refers to analysis of variance

· It is a statistical procedure used to test the degree to which two or more groups vary

24. Validity

· Validity refers to how accurately a method measures what it is intended to measure.

· If research has high validity, that means it produces results that correspond to real properties, characteristics, and variations.

25. Cohort study

· A cohort study is a particular form of longitudinal study that samples a cohort.

· It is a type of panel study where the individuals in the panel share a common characteristic.

· Examples - A group of people born during the same period of time, like a generation and a group of people who begin schooling at the same time

26. Analytical Survey

· Two or more variables are usually examined to test research hypotheses.

· The results allow researchers to examine the interrelationships among variables.

27. Define survey

· Survey is a list of questions aimed to get data from a particular group of people.

· Surveys may be conducted by phone, mail, via the internet, and face-to-face

28. Interview schedule

· The interview schedule is used by the interviewer during a face-to-face interaction

· An interview schedule is basically a list containing a set of structured questions that have been prepared to serve as a guide for interviewers

29. Experimental group

· An experimental group is a group that receives a treatment in an experiment.

· For example, a human experimental group could receive a new medication, a different form of counseling, or some vitamin supplements.

30. Sample

· A sample is a group of people, objects, or items that are taken from a larger population for measurement.

· The sample should be representative of the population to ensure that we can generalize the findings from the research sample to the population as a whole.

31. Data coding

· Coding of data refers to the process of transforming collected information or observations to a set of meaningful, organized categories.

· Coding is a process of identifying a passage in the text or other data items (photograph, image), searching and identifying concepts and finding relations between them.

32. Reliability

· Reliability is a way of assessing the quality of the measurement procedure used to collect data in a dissertation.

· The greater the degree of consistency and stability in a research instrument, the greater the reliability.

33. Index

· Indexes are used to quickly locate data without having to search every row in a database table

· Indexes can be created using one or more columns of a database table, used for both rapid random lookups and efficient access of ordered records.

34. Reception analysis

· Reception analysis, a specific form of qualitative audience research

· It takes a closer look at what is actually going on when an audience meet a media text

35. Replication

· Replication is a term referring to the repetition of a research study

· It is very important because the other researchers can test the findings of the research

36. Hypothesis

· A hypothesis is a precise, testable statement of what the researcher(s) predict will be the outcome of the study.

· A hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables

37. Null hypothesis

· A null hypothesis is a hypothesis that says there is no statistical significance between the two variables in the hypothesis.

· The null hypothesis is often denoted H₀

· Ex – I am going to win Rs. 1,00,000

38. Alternate hypothesis

· An alternative hypothesis is one in which a difference (or an effect) between two or more variables is anticipated by the researchers

· The alternative hypothesis, denoted by H₁ or H_a

· Ex – I am going to win Rs. 1,00,000 or more

39. Discrete variable

· Discrete variables are numeric variables that have a countable number of values between any two values.

· A discrete variable is always numeric. For example, the number of customer complaints

40. Internal validity

· Internal validity is the extent to which a study establishes a trustworthy cause-and-effect relationship between a treatment and an outcome.

· Internal validity also reflects that a given study makes it possible to eliminate alternative explanations for a finding.

41. External validity

· External validity refers to the extent to which results from a study can be applied (generalized) to other situations, groups or events.

· The validity of the experiment depends on the experimental design.

42. Control group

· A control group is used to establish a cause-and-effect relationship by isolating the effect of an independent variable.

· Researchers change the independent variable in the treatment group and keep it constant in the control group. Then they compare the results of these groups

43. Sequential sampling

· Sequential sampling is a non-probabilistic sampling technique

· The process begins, first, with the sampling of a single observation or a group of observations.

44. Sampling frame

· A list of the items or people forming a population from which a sample is taken.

· The sampling frame defines a set of elements from which a researcher can select a sample of the target population.

45. Units

· The unit of analysis is the major entity that you are analyzing in your study.

· For instance, any of the following could be a unit of analysis in a study: individuals, groups, and artifacts (books, photos, newspapers)

46. Sampling unit

· A Sampling unit is one of the units selected for the purpose of sampling.

· Each unit being regarded as individual and indivisible when the selection is made.

47. Chi-square

· The Chi-Square test is a statistical procedure used by researchers to examine the differences between categorical variables in the same population.

· The researchers could then perform a Chi-Square test to validate or provide additional context for these observed frequencies

48. Questionnaire

· A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions for the purpose of gathering information from respondents.

· Questionnaires can be thought of as a kind of written interview. Often a questionnaire uses both open and closed questions to collect data.

49. Measurement

· Measurement is the process of observing and recording the observations that are collected as part of a research effort.

· Nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio are the four Levels of Measurement

50. Research question

· A research question is a question that a research project sets out to answer.

· Good research questions seek to improve knowledge on an important topic, and are usually narrow and specific.

51. Case study

· A process or record of research into the development of a particular person, group, or situation over a period of time.

· For example, a case study in medicine may examine a specific patient a doctor treated, and a case study in business might study a particular firm's strategy.

52. Guttmann scale

· The Guttman scale measures how much of a positive or negative attitude a person has towards a particular topic.

· For example, on a 5-point quiz, if a person gets to question 3 and then stops, it implies they do not agree with questions 4 and 5.

53. Bibliography

· A bibliography is a list of sources used when writing a scholarly article or research paper or a list of books or articles an author has published on a specific subject.

· The purpose of bibliography is to organize information about materials on a given subject so that students of the subject may have access to it.

54. Pilot study

· Pilot studies can play a very important role prior to conducting a full-scale research project.

· It is conducted in order to evaluate feasibility, duration, cost, adverse events, and improve upon the study design

55. Population

· In statistics, a population is the entire group from which a statistical sample is drawn.

· A population may refer to an entire group of people, objects, events, hospital visits, or measurements.

56. Connotation

· It is the indirect meaning of a word

· For example, blue is a color, but it is also a word used to describe a feeling of sadness

· Rose is a symbol of love

57. Denotation

· It is the literal (direct) meaning of a word

· Example - the denotation for “blue” is the color blue.

· Rose is a flower

58. Symbol

· Symbols take the form of words, sounds, gestures, ideas, or visual images and are used to convey other ideas and beliefs.

· For example, a red octagon may be a symbol for "STOP". On a map, a blue line might represent a river.

59. TRP

· TRP is a Television Rating Point. It is the tool that tells us which channel and the programme is viewed the most.

· It shows how many times people are watching a channel or a particular programme

60. Dependent variable

· The dependent variable is the variable being tested and measured in an experiment

· It is 'dependent' on the independent variable.

· The researcher is looking for the possible effect on the dependent variable that might be caused by changing the independent variable.

61. Independent variable

· A variable whose variation does not depend on that of another.

· The independent variable is the variable the experimenter changes or controls and is assumed to have a direct effect on the dependent variable.

· Two examples of common independent variables are gender and educational level.

62. Sample design

· A sample design is the framework, or road map, that serves as the basis for the selection of a survey sample

· Survey researchers are interested in obtaining some type of information through a survey.

63. Research design

· A research design is a framework that has been created to find answers to research questions.

· The design of a study defines the study type (descriptive, correlational, semi-experimental, experimental, review, meta-analytic)

64. Semiology

· The semiology studies the social life of the signs

· Semiotics tries to know how the meaning of a text, a behavior or an object builds itself.

65. Abstract

· An abstract summarizes, usually in one paragraph of 300 words or less, the major aspects of the entire paper in a prescribed sequence

· It includes 1) the overall purpose of the study and the research problem(s)

2) the basic design of the study; 3) major findings

66. Framing

· Framing describes the practice of thinking about news items and story content within familiar context.

· Framing expands the research by focusing on the essence of the issues at hand rather than on a particular topic

67. Perception

· Perception is a mode of capture reality and experience through the senses

· Researchers are able to understand multiple realities that are socially constructed based on these perceptions.

68. Factor analysis

· Factor analysis is a statistical method used to describe variability among observed, correlated variables

· Factor analysis aims to find independent latent variables.

69. After-only with control

· This design involves establishing two matched samples or groups of respondents.

· There is no measurement taken from either group before the experimental variable is introduced

70. Construct

· The construct is a proposed attribute of a person that often cannot be measured directly

· Constructs are also discussed under other labels, such as theoretical constructs or latent variables.

71. Moderator

· Moderator is a qualitative or quantitative variable

· It affects the direction and/or strength of the relation between an independent and a dependent variable.

72. Icon

· Icon is used to represent a particular category of an object, even animals.

· Icon is similar to the actual product and anyone can tell what it stands for because of similarities.

· Ex - My computer icon in computer desktop

73. Metaphor

· The use of metaphors in qualitative research provides an opportunity to examine phenomena from a unique and creative perspective.

· Metaphors can be used to provide structure to the data; to understand a familiar process in a new light; and to evoke emotion.

74. Observed frequency

· It is the actual frequency that is obtained from the experiment

· Observed Frequencies are counts made from experimental data.

· For example, when rolling a die ten times and then count how many times each number is rolled.

75. Expected frequency

· In probability, the number of times a specific outcome. is expected to occur in a given number of repeats.

· For example, you roll a die ten times and then count how many times each number is rolled. The count is made after the experiment.

76. Text

· Textual analysis is a methodology that involves understanding language, symbols, and/or pictures present in texts to gain information.

· Visual, written, or spoken messages provide cues to ways through which communication may be understood.

77. Latent content

· Latent content is the underlying meaning of communications

· Latent content analysis requires that the researcher is closely involved in interpreting and finding meaning in the text.

78. Visual cues

· Visual cues are a type of sensory cue that is processed by the eye.

· They provide information and insight into how the world or a specific experience is perceived.

79. Concept

· Researchers generate concepts by generalizing from particular facts.

· Concepts are based on our experiences and real phenomena

80. Focus group

· A focus group is a market research method that brings together 6-10 people in a room to provide feedback regarding a product, service, concept, or marketing campaign.

· A trained moderator leads a 30-90-minute discussion within the group that is designed to gather helpful information.

81. Close ended question

· Closed-ended questions are questions that can only be answered by selecting from a limited number of options, usually, 'yes' or 'no'.

· Closed-ended questions give limited insight, but can easily be analyzed for quantitative data

82. Open ended question

· Open-ended questions are questions that cannot be answered with a simple 'yes' or 'no', and instead require the respondent to elaborate on their points.

· Open-ended questions help you see things from a customer's perspective as you get feedback in their own words.

83. Overt

· Overt observation is where those being observed are aware of the fact.

· The researcher may still participate in the activity being observed or might play no part and simply observe.

84. Covert

· The subject and individuals in the environment are unaware of the purpose of the observation

· Research participants are deliberately misinformed about what the study is about or they are unaware of their involvement in the study.

Part - B & C

1. Steps in research process

Formulate a research problem

· In this step the researcher goal should be clear that what he / she intend to achieve out of research.

· Initially the problem may be stated in a broad general way

Review of Literature

· A literature review is a comprehensive summary of previous research on a topic.

· The literature review surveys scholarly articles, books, and other sources relevant to a particular area of research.

Formulating hypothesis

· A hypothesis is a precise, testable statement of what the researcher predicts will be the outcome of the study.

· For example someone performing experiments on plant growth might report this hypothesis: "If I give a plant an unlimited amount of sunlight, then the plant will grow to its largest possible size.”

Research design

· The research design refers to the overall strategy of the research in a logical way

· It constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement, and analysis of data.

Data collection

· Data collection is a process of collecting information from all the relevant sources to find answers to the research problem, test the hypothesis and evaluate the outcomes.

· Primary data is data that is collected by a researcher from first-hand sources, using methods like surveys, interviews, or experiments.

· Secondary data is a type of data that has already been published in books, newspapers, magazines, journals, online portals etc.

Data analysis and interpretation

· Data analysis is a process that involves examining, and molding collected data for interpretation to discover relevant information, draws conclusions and support decision-making to solve a research problem.

· Data analysis also serves as a reference for future data collection and other research activities.

Writing research report

· Research report is a brief description of the research work done by the researcher.

· It involves several steps to present the report in the form of thesis or dissertation

2. Types of research

Descriptive research

· It includes surveys and fact finding enquiries of different kinds.

· It is also called as Ex post facto research

· The researcher has no control over the variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening

Analytical research

· The researcher has to use facts or information already available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material.

· Analytical research focuses on understanding the cause-effect relationships between two or more variables.

Applied research

· Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business organization.

· It is used in business, medicine, and education in order to find solutions that may improve health, solve scientific problems or develop new technology.

Fundamental research

· This research is mainly concerned with generalizations and with the formulation of a theory

· Research studies concerning human behavior carried on with a view to make generalizations about human behavior is an example for fundamental research

Quantitative research

· Quantitative research is the process of collecting and analyzing numerical data

· It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.

Qualitative research

· It is concerned with qualitative phenomenon that is phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind.

· Research designed to find out how people feel or what they think about a particular institution / brand is an example for qualitative research

Conceptual research

· It is related to some abstract (conceptual) idea or theory

· It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts

Empirical research

· It is based on experience or observation alone

· It is data based research coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation or experiment

3. Research methods Vs research methodology

Research method	Research methodology
The research method is defined as the procedure or technique applied by the researcher to undertake research.	Research methodology is a system of methods, used scientifically for solving the research problem.
The research method is nothing but the behavior or tool, employed in selecting and building research technique.	Research methodology implies the science of analyzing, the manner in which research is conducted appropriately.
The research method is concerned with carrying out experiment, test, surveys, interviews, etc.	Research methodology is concerned with learning various techniques which can be employed in the performance of experiment, test or survey.
Research method covers various investigation techniques.	Research methodology consists of complete approach aligned towards the attainment of purpose.
Research method intends to discover the solution to the problem at hand.	Research methodology aspires to apply appropriate procedures, with a view to ascertaining solutions.

4. Objectives of research

· To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it.

· To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group

· To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else

· To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variable

5. Elaborate on the probability sampling techniques

· A probability sampling method is any method of sampling that utilizes some form of random selection.

· In order to have a random selection method, you must set up some process or procedure that assures that the different units in the population have equal probabilities of being chosen

Simple Random Sampling

· The researcher must ensure that all members of the population are included in a master list and that subjects are then selected randomly from this master list.

· These samples are highly representative of the population

· It can be time consuming and tedious when creating large samples.

Stratified Random Sampling

· Stratified random sampling is also referred to as proportional random sampling.

· The subjects are initially grouped into different classifications such as gender, level of education, or socioeconomic status.

· These classifications should not have any overlapping subjects.

· From here, researchers randomly select the final list of subjects from the different defined categories to ensure a well rounded sample.

Systematic Random Sampling

· It is a probability sampling method in which sample members from a larger population are selected according to a random starting point but with a fixed, periodic interval.

· It is to select every 15^th name of a list or every 10^th house on one side of a street and so on

Cluster (Area) Random Sampling

· Cluster random sampling is conducted when the size of a population is too large to perform simple random sampling.

· In cluster random sampling, the initial research identifies boundaries.

· From here, the researcher randomly selects a number of identified boundaries.

· Researcher use simple random selection to select subjects from the identified areas.

Multi-Stage Sampling

· It involves a combination of two or more of the probability sampling methods.

· Using just one form of probability sampling does not ensure the randomization necessary to ensure confidence in results.

· Researchers are able to maintain confidence that they are mitigating (justifying) biases as much as possible.

6. Non probability sampling techniques

· Non-probability sampling is a sampling technique where the odds of any member being selected for a sample cannot be calculated.

· Non-probability sampling does not involve random selection

Quota sampling

· It is a non-probability sampling method in which researchers create a sample involving individuals that represent a population.

· Researchers choose these individuals according to specific traits or qualities

· Example - Dividing the population by the state they live in, income or education level, or sex

Convenience sampling

· It is a type of non-probability sampling method where the sample is taken from a group of people easy to contact or to reach.

· Standing at a mall or a grocery store and asking people to answer questions would be an example of a convenience sample.

Purposive sampling

· A purposive sample is where a researcher selects a sample based on their knowledge about the study and population.

· Participants are selected according to the needs of the study

Snowball sampling

· Snowball sampling is where research participants recruit other participants for a test or study.

· For example, people who have many friends are more likely to be recruited into the sample.

7. Different types of data

Primary data

Primary data is an original and unique data, which is directly collected by the researcher from a source.

The attitudes of a community towards health services, evaluating a social program, determining the job satisfaction of the employees of an organization, are the examples of primary data

The sources of primary data are chosen specifically to meet the requirements of a particular research

The questions the researchers ask are framed to get the data that will help them with their study

Secondary data

Secondary data refers to the data which has already been collected for a certain purpose and documented somewhere else.

Collection of data from sources such as articles, journals, magazines, books and periodicals to obtain historical and other types of information, are examples of secondary data.

They can include information from the national population census and other government information

secondary data tends to be readily available and inexpensive to obtain

8. Difference between probability and non probability sampling

Probability sampling	Non-probability sampling
The sample is selected at random	Sample selection based on the subjective judgment of the researcher
Everyone in the population has an equal chance of getting selected	Not everyone has an equal chance to participate
Used when sampling bias has to be reduced	The researcher does not consider sampling bias
Useful when the population is diverse	Useful when the population has similar traits
Used to create an accurate sample	The sample does not accurately represent the population
Finding the right respondents is not easy	Finding right respondent is easy

9. Tools employed (used) for collection of data

Interviews

· In-Depth Interviews include both individual interviews as well as “group” interviews.

· The data can be recorded in a wide variety of ways including stenography, audio recording, video recording or written notes.

· In interviews it is assumed that there is a questioner and one or more interviewees.

· The purpose of the interview is to investigate the ideas of the interviewees about the phenomenon of interest.

Surveys or Questionnaires

· Surveys or questionnaires are instruments used for collecting data in survey research.

· They usually include a set of standardized questions that explore a specific topic and collect information about demographics, opinions, attitudes, or behaviors.

Observation

· It is collecting data through observation.

· This can be done directly or indirectly

1. Descriptive observations: you simply write down what you observe

2. Inferential observations: you may write down an observation that is indirect by the subject’s body language and behavior.

3. Evaluative observation: A judgment from the behavior.

Case Studies

· A case study is usually an in-depth description of a process, experience, or structure at a single institution.

· Generally it involves a mix of quantitative and qualitative data collection techniques.

Schedules Method

· The interviewers, along with schedules, go to the respondents, put to them the questions and record the replies.

· The respondents have no scope to misunderstand any question and thereby putting irrelevant answer.

Information from Correspondents

· The investigator appoints local agent or correspondents in different places to collect information.

· They collect & transmit information to the central office where the data are processed.

10. Significance (importance) of research

· The purpose of research is to inform action.

· Research must always be of high quality in order to produce knowledge

· A tool for building knowledge and for facilitating learning

· Means to understand various issues and increase public awareness

· An aid to business success

· Research includes scientific and it promotes the development of logical habits of thinking and organization

· Research provides the basic for nearly all government policies in our economic system

11. Difference between qualitative and quantitative research

Quantitative research	Qualitative research
Focuses on testing theories and hypotheses	Focuses on exploring ideas and formulating a theory or hypothesis
Analyzed through Maths and Statistical analysis	Analyzed by summarizing, categorizing and interpreting
Mainly expressed in numbers, graphs and tables	Mainly expressed in words
Requires many respondents	Requires few respondents
Closed (multiple choice) questions	Open-ended questions
Employs strong scientific control	Lacks strong scientific control
It is measurable	Not usually measurable

12. Advantages and disadvantages of quantitative research

Advantages of Quantitative research

· A problem or question is examined by forming a hypothesis

· Controlled, objective testing and experimentation ultimately supports or rejects hypotheses.

· Each step is standardized to reduce bias when collecting and analyzing data.

· The results are valid, reliable and generalizable to a larger population.

· Quantitative research is advantageous for studies that involve numbers

Disadvantages of Quantitative research

· Measuring phenomena like human behavior in natural settings is not possible in Quantitative research method.

· Survey instruments are helpless to errors such as mistakes in measurement and sampling techniques.

· Another disadvantage is that some topics are too difficult to quantify in numbers.

· For example, constructing an effective survey with closed-ended questions about how people fall in love would be difficult.

13. Advantages and disadvantages of qualitative research

Advantages of Qualitative research

1. Qualitative Research can capture changing attitudes within a target group such as consumers of a product or service, or attitudes in the workplace.

2. Qualitative approaches to research are not bound by the limitations of quantitative methods.

3. Qualitative Research provides a much more flexible approach. Researchers can quickly adapt questions, change the setting to improve responses.

4. It allows researchers to be far more tentative about what areas they choose to investigate and how to do so.

Disadvantages of Qualitative research

1. Sample size can be a big issue.

2. Self-selection bias may arise where companies ask staff to volunteer their views.

3. The artificiality of qualitative data capture.

4. In qualitative approaches, asking about “how” and “why” can be hugely informative, but if researchers don’t ask, that insight may be missed.

14. Types of research design

1. Descriptive research design:

· In a descriptive design, a researcher is solely interested in describing the situation or case.

· It is a theory-based design method which is created by gathering, analyzing, and presenting collected data.

· This allows a researcher to provide insights into the why and how of research.

· Descriptive design helps others better understand the need for the research.

2. Experimental research design:

· Experimental research design establishes a relationship between the cause and effect of a situation.

· It is a causal design where one observes the impact caused by the independent variable on the dependent variable.

· It is a highly practical research design method as it contributes to solving a problem at hand.

· The independent variables are manipulated to monitor the change it has on the dependent variable.

· It is often used in social sciences to observe human behavior by analyzing two groups.

3. Correlational research design:

· It helps researchers establish a relationship between two closely connected variables. This type of research requires two different groups.

· Statistical analysis techniques calculate the relationship between them.

· A correlation coefficient determines the correlation between two variables, whose value ranges between -1 and +1.

4. Diagnostic research design:

· The researcher is looking to evaluate the underlying cause of a specific topic or phenomenon.

· This method helps one learn more about the factors that create troublesome situations.

· This design has three parts of the research: Inception of the issue, Diagnosis of the issue and Solution for the issue

5. Explanatory research design:

· Explanatory design uses a researcher’s ideas and thoughts on a subject to further explore their theories.

· The research explains unexplored aspects of a subject and details about what, how, and why of research questions.

15. Longitudinal research

· Longitudinal survey research involves conducting survey research over a continuum of time and spread across years and decades.

· The data collected using this survey research method from one time period to another is qualitative or quantitative.

· Respondent behavior, preferences, attitudes are continuously observed over time to analyze reasons for a change in behavior or preferences.

· For example, suppose a researcher intends to learn about the eating habits of teenagers.

· In that case, he/she will follow a sample of teenagers over a considerable period to ensure that the collected information is reliable.

16. Survey method

· Survey Research is defined as the process of conducting research using surveys that researchers send to survey respondents.

· The data collected from surveys is then statistically analyzed to draw meaningful research conclusions.

· It consists of structured survey questions that motivate the participants to respond

· This research type includes the recruitment of individuals, collection, and analysis of data.

· It’s useful for researchers who aim at communicating new features or trends to their respondents.

· Generally, it’s the primary step towards obtaining quick information about mainstream topics

Survey research methods

There are three main survey research methods, divided based on the medium of conducting survey research:

· Online/ Email: Online survey research is one of the most popular survey research methods today. The cost involved in online survey research is very low and the responses gathered are highly accurate.

· Phone: Survey research conducted over the telephone can be useful in collecting data. Time required in phone survey will be higher.

· Face-to-face: Researchers conduct face-to-face in-depth interviews in situations where there is a complicated problem to solve. The response rate for this method is the highest, but it can be costly.

17. Case study

· A case study is a research strategy and an empirical inquiry that investigates a phenomenon within its real-life context.

· Case studies are based on an in-depth investigation of a single individual, group or event.

· A case study is a descriptive and exploratory analysis of a person, group or event.

· A case study research can be single or multiple case studies

· Case studies are analysis of persons, groups, events, decisions, periods, policies, institutions or other systems that are studied holistically by one or more methods.

· For example, a group of individuals might be watched over an extended period of time to observe the progression of a particular disease.

Process of case study method

Select a case

· Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions, you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on.

· Case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

Build a theoretical framework

· While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field.

· Case study is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic.

· Conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoritical framework.

· This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

Collect data

· Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews, observations, and analysis of primary and secondary sources

· Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data.

Describe and analyze the case

· In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

· Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis, with separate sections or chapters for the methods, results and discussion.

· Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyze its meanings and implications

· In all cases, give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory.

18. Techniques of developing research questions

1. Determine the requirements

· The purpose of assignment is important in framing questions whether it is to evaluate a set of data or to state and defend an argument

· Determining the purpose will help to choose the most appropriate topic and word to frame good questions

2. Choose a topic

· The best approach is to choose a topic that you are interested in.

· If you are interested in your topic you are more likely to invest more time, effort, and creativity into your research and writing.

· The greater your interest, the more likely it is that you will produce an assignment that is interesting to read.

3. Conduct preliminary research

· Before you write your question it is advisable to read other research papers

· Reading in order to develop a research question is different from reading in order to answer it.

· Focus on the main ideas and arguments

4. Narrow down your topic

· Having conducted some preliminary research now the researcher has to narrow down his/her topic.

· It is important to focus on specific issue within the broader topic

· It is more effective to cover a single issue of a topic in depth than many

5. Write your question

· After narrowed down the topic the researcher pay attention to the wording of research question.

· The research question must outline a clear task that the researcher will need to complete.

· A good research question requires you to analyze an issue or problem.

19. Process of conducting survey method (in media research)

(1) Define the population and sample

Populations

· The target population is the specific group of people used in research. For example: College students, Working women, House wife, etc

· Survey should aim to produce results that can be generalized to the whole population.

Samples

· People who are all involved in the research process are called sample

· The sample size depends on how big the population is.

· The sample should aim to be representative of the population as a whole.

· Larger sample produce more valid result.

(2) Decide on the type of survey

There are two main types of survey:

A questionnaire, where a list of questions is distributed by mail, online or in person, and respondents fills it out themselves.

An interview, where the researcher asks a set of questions by phone or in person and records the responses.

The type of survey depends on the sample size and location, as well as the focus of the research.

(3) Design the survey questions

· The researcher need to decide which questions to ask and how to ask.

· Closed-ended questions give the respondent a predetermined set of answers to choose from. Ex – yes or no questions

· Open-ended questions are best for qualitative research. This type of question has no predetermined answers to choose from. Instead, the respondent answers in their own words.

(4) Distribute the survey and collect responses

· Create a clear plan for where, when, how, and with whom the researcher will conduct the survey.

· Determine the number of responses.

· The data collection can be done through mail, online, or in person.

(5) Analyze the survey results

· Researcher has to process the data, usually with the help of a computer program to sort all the responses.

· Researcher should also clean the data by removing incomplete or incorrectly completed responses.

· If it is open-ended questions, researcher has to code the responses by assigning labels to each response and organizing them into categories or themes.

· Statistical analysis is usually conducted using programs like SPSS or Stata.

(6) Write up the survey results

· The analyzed data is written as thesis, dissertation or research paper.

· In the methodology section, researcher should describe exactly how he/she conducted the survey.

· They should explain the types of questions used, the sampling method, when and where the survey took place, and the response rate.

20. Data tabulation

· The process of placing classified data into tabular form is known as tabulation.

· A table is a systematic arrangement of statistical data in rows and columns.

· Rows are horizontal arrangements whereas columns are vertical arrangements.

(1) Simple Tabulation - When the data are tabulated to one characteristic, it is said to be a simple tabulation or one-way tabulation. Ex - Tabulation of religion

(2) Double Tabulation - When the data are tabulated according to two characteristics at a time, it is said to be a double tabulation or two-way tabulation. Exam ple - Religion and sex (male & female) is an example of a double tabulation.

(3) Complex Tabulation - When the data are tabulated according to many characteristics, it is said to be a complex tabulation. Example - Religion, sex and literacy, etc. are in one table is an example of a complex tabulation.

Importance of data tabulation

· Under tabulation, data is divided into various parts and for each part there are totals and subtotals

· Relationship between different parts can be easily known

· Since data are arranged in a table with a title and a number so these can be easily identified and used for the required purpose

· Tabulation makes the data brief & can be easily presented in the form of graphs

· Tabulation presents the numerical figures in an attractive form

21. Sampling error

· A sampling error is a statistical error that occurs when an analyst does not select a sample that represents the entire population

· Error occurs when the researcher does not understand who they should survey.

· A frame error occurs when the wrong sub-population is used to select a sample.

· Non-response errors occur when respondents those who do not respond.

· Sampling Errors occur because of variation in the number or representativeness of the sample that responds.

· Sampling errors can be controlled by (1) careful sample designs, (2) large samples, and (3) multiple contacts

22. Experimental research

· Experimental research is a scientific approach to research

· It is based on the comparison between two or more groups with a straightforward logic.

· Experimental research is research conducted with a scientific approach using two sets of variables.

Identifying a research problem

· The process starts by clearly identifying the problem you want to study

· Choose the method you want to test, and formulate a hypothesis to predict the outcome of the test.

Planning an experimental research study

· The next step is to devise an experiment to test your hypothesis.

· The amount of time funding you have will also determine the size of your experiment.

Conducting the experiment

· At the start of an experiment, the control and treatment groups must be selected.

· This makes the study a quasi-experiment, since the researchers cannot control all of the variables.

Analyzing the data

· You must devise a scale by which you will evaluate the data you receive

· The researcher must decide what indicators will be, and will not be, important.

· The researcher has made judgments on what signals improved writing.

Writing the research paper

· Once the experiment is completed, the findings should be shared by publishing academic paper.

· These papers usually have the format to present the data – Example APA

Advantages of experimental research

· Researchers have a stronger hold over variables to obtain desired results.

· The results are specific.

· After analyzing the results, you can apply your findings to similar ideas or situations.

· You can identify the cause and effect of a hypothesis.

23. Strength and weaknesses of Observation method

Strengths of Observation method

· Information about the physical environment and about human behavior can be recorded directly by the researcher

· Collect data where and when an event or activity is occurring.

· Does not rely on people’s willingness or ability to provide information.

· Allows you to directly see what people do rather than what people say.

Weaknesses of Observation method

· The environment, event or behavior of interest may be inaccessible and observation may simply be impossible.

· People may, consciously or unconsciously, change the way they behave because they are being observed.

· Observations can never provide us with a direct representation of reality.

· It can be expensive and time-consuming compared to other data collection methods.

· It does not increase your understanding of why people behave as they do.

24. Types of interview

Unstructured interviews

· These are interviews that take place with few interview questions.

· They often progress in the manner a normal conversation would, however it concerns the research topic under review.

· It is a relatively formless interview style that researchers use to establish rapport and comfort with the participant, and is extremely helpful when researchers are discussing sensitive topics.

· The researcher is expected to investigate participants in order to obtain the most rich and in-depth information possible.

· We have to conduct several rounds of interviews with your participants in order to gather all the information we need.

· It is a part of the conversational style this interview method requires.

Semi structured interviews

· It is mostly a guided conversation between the researcher and participant.

· It does maintain some structure, but it also provides the researcher with the ability to investigate the participant for additional details.

· It offers a great deal of flexibility for the researcher.

· We can get more details about participants’ thoughts, feelings, and opinions.

Structured interviews

· These are interviews that strictly adhere to the use of an interview protocol to guide the researcher.

· It is a more rigid interview style, in that only the questions on the interview protocol are asked.

· As a result, there are not a lot of opportunities to investigate and further explore topics that participants bring up when answering the interview questions.

· It helps target the specific phenomenon or experience that the researcher is investigating.

· It helps to gather the correct information that the researcher need

25. Data analysis for qualitative research

Content Analysis

· It can be used to analyze the documented information from text, images, and sometimes from the physical items.

· It depends on the research questions to predict when and where to use this method.

Narrative Analysis

· This method is used to analyze content gathered from various sources such as personal interviews, field observation, and surveys.

· The majority of times, stories, or opinions shared by people are focused on finding answers to the research questions.

Discourse Analysis

· Discourse analysis is used to analyze the interactions with people.

· This particular method considers the social context under which the communication between the researcher and respondent takes place.

· Discourse analysis also focuses on the lifestyle and day-to-day environment while deriving any conclusion.

Grounded Theory

· It explains why a particular phenomenon is happened

· Grounded theory is applied to study data about the host of similar cases occurring in different settings.

· When researchers are using this method, they might alter explanations until they arrive at some conclusion.

26. Data analysis in quantitative research

Descriptive statistics

· This method is used to describe the basic features of types of data in research.

· Descriptive analysis does not go beyond making conclusions.

· The conclusions are again based on the hypothesis researchers have formulated so far.

· Descriptive analysis is also called a ‘univariate analysis’ since it is commonly used to analyze a single variable.

Here are a few major types of descriptive analysis methods.

Measures of Frequency

· Count, Percent, Frequency

· It is used to denote how often a particular event occurs.

· Researchers use it when they want to showcase how often a response is given.

Measures of Central Tendency

· Mean, Median, Mode

· The method is widely used to demonstrate distribution by various points.

· Researchers use this method when they want to showcase the most commonly indicated response.

Inferential statistics

· Inferential statistics are used to make predictions about a larger population after research

· For example, you can ask 100 audiences at a movie theater if they like the movie they are watching. Researchers then use inferential statistics on the collected sample to reason that about 80-90% of people like the movie.

· It is used to showcase the relationship between different variables instead of describing a single variable.

Here are some of the commonly used methods for data analysis in research.

Correlation

· The researchers are interested to understand the relationship between two or more variables, they opt for correlation research methods.

Cross-tabulation

· It is used to analyze the relationship between multiple variables.

· Suppose provided data has age and gender categories presented in rows and columns. Cross-tabulation helps for data analysis and research by showing the number of males and females in each age category.

Analysis of variance (ANOVA)

· The statistical procedure is used for testing the degree to which two or more vary or differ in an experiment.

· A considerable degree of variation means research findings were significant.

27. Types of variables

Independent variable

· A variable whose variation does not depend on that of another.

· The independent variable is the variable the experimenter changes or controls and is assumed to have a direct effect on the dependent variable.

· Two examples of common independent variables are gender and educational level.

Dependent variable

· The dependent variable is the variable being tested and measured in an experiment,

· It is 'dependent' on the independent variable.

· The researcher is looking for the possible effect on the dependent variable that might be caused by changing the independent variable.

Example 1: You want to see which type of fertilizer helps plants grow fastest, so you add a different brand of fertilizer to each plant and see how tall they grow.

· Independent Variable: Type of fertilizer given to the plant

· Dependent Variable: Plant height

Example 2 - We might change the type of information given to participants to see what effect this might have on the amount of information remembered.

In this particular example the type of information is the independent variable and the amount of information remembered is the dependent variable.

28. Writing research report

I. The preliminary pages

· In the preliminary pages, the report should carry the cover page such as title, name of the researcher, acknowledgements and declaration.

· Then there should be a table of contents followed by a list of tables and list of graphs or charts, if any, given in the report.

· A brief synopsis of the research can also be added in a crisp and concise manner.

II. The main text

a. Introduction: This section should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research and an explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The scope of the study along with practical implications should as well be stated in this part.

b. Review of literature - This section should contain detailed discussion of the past research or studies carried out in related field of study.

c. Research Methodology - A section can fully be devoted to describing the methodology and the method adopted of fulfilling the objectives of the study. Sampling technique, sample size, qualitative or quantitative method and data collection are mentioned here.

d. Findings and Recommendations - The essence of this section is to present the findings and recommendations in non-technical language.

e. Conclusion - Towards the end of the main text, researcher should again put down the results of the study clearly and precisely. In fact, it is the final summing up of the entire process or activities undertaken.

III. The end matter

· Bibliography or references, i.e., list of books, journals, reports, etc., consulted, should also be given in the end.

· At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data.

29. Characteristics of good research

· The objective or the purpose of the research is clearly defined.

· The research process should be discussed in detail and with clarity.

· Appropriate research design should be followed keeping the objectives in mind.

· High ethical standard should be adopted at each stage of the research.

· Data analysis must be adequate to reveal the truth.

· Analysis, findings and conclusions should complement the research objectives.

· The study must be reliable, valid and generalizable.

· Suggestions are adequate for decision making.

· It must reflect the true picture or reality.

30. Qualitative research

· Empiricism : the only knowledge that human beings acquire is from sensory experiences

· Unstructured / flexible / open methodology

· To describe variation in a phenomenon, situation, issue, etc.

· Emphasis on description of variables

· Fewer cases is enough

· Covers multiple issues but assembles required information from fewer respondents

· It is authenticate

· Explore experiences, meanings, perceptions and feelings

· Organization more descriptive and narrative in nature

31. Methods of qualitative research

1. One-on-One Interview: Conducting in-depth interview is one of the most common qualitative research methods. It is a personal interview that is carried out with one respondent at a time.

2. Focus groups: Usually includes a limited number of respondents (6-10). The main aim of the focus group is to find answers to the why what and how questions.

3. Ethnographic research: It is the most in-depth observational method that studies people in their naturally occurring environment.

4. Case study research: It is one of the simplest ways of conducting research as it involves a deep dive and thorough understanding of the data collection methods and inferring the data.

5. Record keeping: This method makes use of the already existing reliable documents and similar sources of information as the data source. This data can be used in a new research.

6. Process of observation: Qualitative observation is a process of research that uses subjective methodologies to gather systematic information or data.

32. Quantitative research

· Rationalism: Human beings achieve knowledge because of their capacity to reason.

· Structured / rigid / predetermined methodology

· To quantify extent of variation in a phenomenon, situation, issue, etc.

· Emphasis on some form of either measurement or classification of variables

· Emphasis on greater sample size

· Assembles required information from a greater number of respondents

· Reliability and objectivity

· Explains incidence, nature of issues, opinions and attitude discovers regularities and formulates theories

33. Identifying research problem

Statement of the problem in a general way – All the problem should be stated in a broad way. In case of social research, conducting pilot survey is important.

Understanding the nature of the problem – The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with those who first raised the problem and with what objectives in view.

Surveying the available literature – All available literature concerning the problem at hand must necessarily be surveyed and examined before a definition of the research problem is given.

Developing the ideas through discussions – The researcher must discuss the research problem with his colleagues and others who have enough experience in the same area.

Rephrasing the research problem – Finally the researcher must sit to rephrase the research problem into a working proposition.

34. Writing bibliography for books and journals

A bibliography is a list of sources used when writing a scholarly article or research paper or a list of books or articles an author has published on a specific subject.

For books

1. Name of author, last name first.

2. Title, underlined to indicate italics

3. Place, publisher, and date of publication

4. Number of volumes

Example – Kothari, C. R., Quantitative techniques, New Delhi, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., 1978

For journal

1. Author or authors. The surname is followed by first initials.

2. Year of publication of the article (in round brackets).

3. Article title.

4. Journal title (in italics).

5. Volume of journal (in italics).

6. Issue number of journal in round brackets (no italics).

7. Page range of article.

Example - Gray, L (2018), 'Exploring how and why young people use social networking sites', Educational Psychology in Practice, vol. 34, no. 2, pp. 175-194.

35. Hypothesis

· Hypothesis is developed to talk about the research problem or to address any phenomenon.

· It aims to encourage critical approach.

· It enables the researcher to develop a specific direction as well as better understanding about the subject matter of the study.

· It further assists in the careful and focused analysis of data collected.

· In scientific researches, hypotheses are developed keeping in view the experimentation and observation drawn from the past.

· Working hypotheses are based on the widely accepted suppositions in order to carry out further research.

36. Levels of measurement

Nominal level of measurement

· In this level of measurement, the numbers in the variable are used only to classify the data.

· In this level of measurement, words, letters, and alpha-numeric symbols can be used.

· Female gender could be classified as F, male gender could be classified as M, and transgendered classified as T.

Ordinal level of measurement

· This level of measurement depicts some ordered relationship among the variable’s observations.

· Ex - First rank, second rank, third rank and so on.

· The ordinal level of measurement indicates an ordering of the measurements.

Interval level of measurement

· The interval level of measurement classifies, orders the measurements, and also specifies that the distances between each interval on the scale

· For example, an interval level of measurement could be the measurement of anxiety in a student between the score of 10 and 11

· This interval is the same as that of a student who scores between 40 and 41.

Ratio level of measurement

· In this level of measurement, the observations, in addition to having equal intervals, can have a value of zero as well.

· In the ratio level of measurement, the divisions between the points on the scale have an equivalent distance between them.

37. Semiotics in Advertisement

· Semiotics is frequently used in advertising to signify an advertiser's message through the use of signs or symbols.

· In some cases, the sign can be an exact representation of the thing being signified, while in other cases, it may be a symbol associated with it.

Images - One of the most frequent symbols used in advertising is the visual image of the product being sold. For example, a picture of skull and crossbones next to a pack of cigarettes could be used to advertise the harmful nature of cigarette smoking.Text - One word will convey a message with the same effectiveness as an entire picture. For example, boost is the secret of our energy tells that it gives more energy for the players.

Sound - Symbols do not have to be visual in nature. They can be audible, as well. The jingle is used to attract the target audience and an easy symbol to recall. Example- Airtel music

Visual effects (VFX) – It is the process by which imagery is created or manipulated outside the context of a live action shot in ad film making. We could see VFX in detergent soap and powder advertisements to show the cleanliness of dress

Process - Semiotics employs the use of repeated symbols that come to signify the product. Advertisers do this, not only through repetition, but also through the combining of symbols, bringing words, images and music together into one meaningful and coherent composition.

38. Types of data analysis

Text Analysis

· Text Analysis is also referred to as Data Mining.

· It used to transform raw data into business information.

· It offers a way to extract and examine data and deriving patterns and finally interpretation of the data.

Statistical Analysis

· Statistical Analysis shows "What happen?" by using past data.

· Statistical Analysis includes collection, Analysis, interpretation, presentation, and modeling of data.

· It analyses a set of data or a sample of data. There are two categories of this type of Analysis - Descriptive Analysis and Inferential Analysis.

Descriptive Analysis

· This method is used to describe the basic features of types of data in research.

· Descriptive analysis does not go beyond making conclusions.

· The conclusions are again based on the hypothesis researchers have formulated so far.

· Descriptive analysis is also called a ‘univariate analysis’ since it is commonly used to analyze a single variable.

Inferential Analysis

· Inferential statistics are used to make predictions about a larger population after research

· It is used to showcase the relationship between different variables instead of describing a single variable.

Diagnostic Analysis

· Diagnostic Analysis shows "Why did it happen?"

· This Analysis is useful to identify behavior patterns of data.

· If a new problem arrives in business, this Analysis find similar patterns of that problem.

Predictive Analysis

· Predictive Analysis shows "what is likely to happen" by using previous data.

· Example -If last year I bought two dresses based on my savings and if this year my salary is increasing double then I can buy four dresses.

· It makes predictions about future outcomes based on current or past data.

Prescriptive Analysis

· Prescriptive Analysis determines which action to take in a current problem or decision.

· Based on current situations and problems, they analyze the data and make decisions.

39. Discuss various steps of item analysis

· Item analysis is the set of qualitative and quantitative techniques and procedures used to evaluate the characteristics of items of the test

· Its analysis provides information about its performance.

Perform Item Analysis

Example - Multiple-choice question is given to 32 students. To conduct item analysis, you follow the steps below:

· After scoring students' tests, rank them from the highest to lowest scores.

· Keep ten tests with the highest scores in one group.

· Keep ten tests with the lowest scores in another group.

· For each test question, count and write down the number of students in the high-scoring group who select each question option

· Do the same for the students in the low-scoring group

· Compute the difficulty level of the question

· Compute the discrimination index of each question or question option

· Evaluate the efficiency of each question option

40. Criteria for good measurement technique

RELIABILITY

· Reliability is the consistency of measurement

· It is the degree to which an instrument measures the same way each time it is used under the same condition with the same subjects.

· In short, it is the repeatability of measurement.

· A measure is considered reliable if a person's score on the same test given twice is similar.

VALIDITY

· Validity is the extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure.

· It is vital for a test to be valid in order for the results to be accurately applied and interpreted.

· Validity isn’t determined by a single statistic, but by a body of research that demonstrates the relationship between the test and the behavior it is intended to measure.

PRACTICIBILITY

· It should be feasible & usable.

· Quality of being usable in context to the objective to be achieved.

USABILITY - Easiness in administration, scoring, interpretation and application, low cost, proper mechanical make – up

MEASUREABILITY - It should measure the objective to be achieved.

41. Elucidate the practical concerns in developing the questionnaire with examples

· The failure of management and the researcher to specify clear and mutually agreed upon objectives for the questionnaire.

· Time constraint in preparing questionnaire

· Inexperienced researcher failure to clearly specify objectives leads to dysfunctional behavior

· The majority of them have questionnaires which are very lengthy.

· Questions asked at lower levels in an organization can result in requests for information or action at another level.

· Questions written at a reading level too high for the participants.

· Major significance associated with employee involvement in questionnaire development, especially in grievances, labor disputes, wages, hours of employment or conditions of work.

· Forget to consider the cost implications of data collections

42. Considerations while framing questions for survey research / Techniques of framing questionnaire

· The questions should be few, short, clearly worded, simple and easy to reply.

· The questions should be within the information scope of the respondents.

· The questions should have direct relation to subject of the investigation.

· The opening questions should not be such as to abuse human interest.

· Units and technical terms are not to be used in question as far as possible.

· The questions should be inter-related with each other.

· The questions should proceed in logical sequence moving from easy to more difficult questions.

· Personal and intimate questions are not to be included as far as possible.

· Emotional questions should be avoided.

· Open-ended questions should be avoided to the extent possible.

· The questions should be free from ambiguity. Vague expressions capable of different interpretations should be avoided in a questionnaire.

· Answer to a question should be objective and have a capacity of easily classified, tabulated and analyzed.

· There should be some control questions in the questionnaire which indicate the reliability of the respondent.

· Adequate space for answers should be provided in the questionnaire.

· Brief directions with regard to filling up the questionnaire should be given.

· A place in the questionnaire should be provided for the signature of the respondent.

43. Content analysis

Preparation of data – Preparing the collected data for content analysis

Defining the theme – Classifying the content into themes which can be a word, phrase or a sentence. When deciding the unit of analysis, one theme should present an idea.

Developing categories and coding scheme – Develop sub-categories and coding scheme for the analysis (headmaster, mayor, MLA).

Pre-testing the coding scheme on sample – In order to ensure consistency members of the research team need to code the sample of existing data. If the level of consistency is low across researchers then re-coding has to be done again.

Coding all the text – Applying the coding process to the data.

Drawing inferences on the basis of coding - One has to draw inferences on the basis of codes and categories generated.

Presentation of results – Based on the analysis, the researcher can present the results in the form of graphs, matrices or conceptual frameworks. The result should be presented in such a way that the reader is able to understand the basis of interpretations.

1. Select the content you will analyze

Based on your research question, choose the texts that you will analyze. You need to decide:

·        The medium (e.g. newspapers, speeches or websites) and genre (e.g. opinion pieces, political campaign speeches, or marketing copy)

·        The criteria for inclusion (e.g. newspaper articles that mention a particular event, speeches by a certain politician, or websites selling a specific type of product)

·        The parameters in terms of date range, location, etc.

·        To reach media representations of male and female politicians, you decide to analyze news articles and opinion pieces in print newspapers between 2017 – 2019.

2. Define the units and categories of analysis

· Unit(s) - Are you going to record the frequency of individual words and phrases, the characteristics of people who appear in the texts, the presence and positioning of images, etc

· Categories can be objective characteristics (e.g. female, aged 40-50, lawyer, mother) or more conceptual (e.g. trustworthy, corrupt, conservative, family oriented).

· Your units of analysis are the politicians who appear in each article and the words and phrases that are used to describe them.

3. Develop a set of rules for coding

· Coding involves organizing the units of meaning into the previously defined categories.

· In considering the category female politician you decide which titles will be coded with this category (governor, counselor, mayor).

· With trustworthy you decide which specific words or phrases related to trustworthiness (honest and reliable) will be coded in this category.

4. Code the text according to the rules

· You go through each text and record all relevant data in the appropriate categories.

· This can be done manually or aided with computer programs

· You record the characteristics of each politician mentioned, along with all words and phrases related to trustworthiness that are used to describe them

5. Analyze the results and draw conclusions

· Once coding is complete, the collected data is examined to find patterns and draw conclusions in response to your research question.

· You might use statistical analysis to find correlations

· From these results, you conclude that national newspapers present male politicians as more trustworthy than female politicians, and infer that this might have an effect on readers perceptions of women in politics

44. Visual research

· Visual research is a qualitative research methodology that relies on the use of artistic mediums to produce and represent knowledge.

· These artistic mediums include film, photography, drawings, paintings, and sculptures.

· The artistic mediums provide a rich source of information that has the ability of capturing reality.

· They also reveal information about what the medium captures.

· Using photography as an example, the photographs taken illustrate reality and give information about the photographer through the angle, focus of the image, and the moment in which the photograph was taken.

· Images are an essential component for different sorts on inquires in a wide range of topics

· After the visual material is created the resulting collection may be the base of further discussion, interviews, and or analysis

45. How will you conduct a focus group study?

· A focus group is a market research method that brings together 6-10 people in a room to provide feedback regarding a product, service, concept, or marketing campaign.

· A trained moderator leads a 30-90-minute discussion within the group that is designed to gather helpful information.

Define a focus group

· A focus group is a small group of six to ten people led through an open discussion by a skilled moderator.

· The moderator’s goal is to generate a maximum number of different ideas and opinions from as many different people in the time allotted.

· A homogeneous group of strangers comprise the focus group.

Designing questions

· Twelve is the maximum number of questions for any one group. Ten is better, and eight is ideal.

· Focus group participants won’t have a chance to see the questions they are being asked

· So the question should be short and to the point using unambiguous words.

Recruiting and preparing for participants

· In an ideal focus group, all the participants are very comfortable with each other but none of them know each other.

· Homogeneity is the key to maximizing disclosure among focus group participants.

· Focus group participants can be recruited on the basis of nomination, random selection, job title, etc

Conducting the focus group

· Ideally, the focus group is conducted by a team consisting of a moderator and assistant moderator.

· The moderator facilitates the discussion; the assistant takes notes and runs the tape recorder.

· It may be important to collect demographic information from participants if age, gender, or other attributes are important for correlation with focus group findings.

Analyzing the data

· Clean up transcripts by stripping off nonessential words.

· Simultaneously assign each participant comment/quote a separate line on the page as well as each new thought or idea therein.

· Label each line with the participant and group number

· When all comments have been entered, look for common categories or themes across the entries for each question.

46. Control group

· A control group in a scientific experiment is a group separated from the rest of the experiment

· The independent variable being tested cannot influence the results.

· This isolates the independent variable's effects on the experiment

· Control groups can also be separated into two other types: positive or negative.

· Positive control groups are groups where the conditions of the experiment are set to guarantee a positive result.

· A positive control group can show the experiment is functioning properly as planned.

· Negative control groups are groups where the conditions of the experiment are set to cause a negative outcome.

· Control groups are not necessary for all scientific experiments.

47. Design a coding sheet for content analysis

48. Status of audience research in India

· Broadcast Audience Research Council (BARC) is the world's largest television measurement science industry-body.

· BARC India owns and manages a transparent, accurate, and inclusive TV audience measurement system.

· It also provides a suite of Insight products designed for broadcasters, advertisers and agencies.

· The Big Data and Insights generated by BARC India powers efficient media spends and content decisions in a highly dynamic and growing television sector.

· It uses Audio Watermarking technology to measure viewership of TV channels

· System also allows measurement of time-shifted viewing and simulcasts.

· BARC India was planned and executed as an alternative to TAM Media Research Pvt. Ltd, the audience measurement system

· It was set up as per guidelines of the Ministry of Information & Broadcasting, Government of India.

49. Experimental group or treatment group

· An experimental group is a group that receives a treatment in an experiment.

· The “group” is made up of test subjects (people, animals, plants, cells etc.) and the “treatment” is the variable you are studying

· For example, a human experimental group could receive a new medication, a different form of counseling

· A plant treatment group could receive a new plant fertilizer, more sunlight, or distilled water.

· The group that does not receive the treatment is called the control group.

· There are two important things in setting up an experimental group. First what variable you're going to test. Then, how you are going to measure the results from the experimental group.

· Comparing the results from the experimental group with the results of the control group is one way to measure the results.

50. Significance of pre-testing the research design

· Pretesting the survey is an important way to pinpoint problem areas, reduce measurement error, reduce respondent burden and determine whether or not respondents are interpreting questions correctly

· Using pretest of the survey, researchers are able to ensure that the questions are clearly articulated and that the response options are relevant and comprehensive.

· Pretest ensures researchers and respondents interpret the survey in the same way

· Pretest can bring to light those inevitable instances of obscure terminology, unfamiliar references and ambiguous words, etc

· Pretest allows the researcher to assess the amount of time it takes to complete the survey

· Another important feature of pretesting survey is the technical report left for future research endeavors.

· It is used to design a valid survey instrument

· Pretest process helps avoid future problems encountered at the various stages of study design

51. Phases of mass media research

Phase I

· Phase I of the research, the research subject is medium itself

· What is it? How does it work? What technology does it involve?

· Who will have access to the new medium? How much will it cost?

Phase II

· The study about the uses and the users of the medium

· How do people use the medium in real life? What is the reason for the usage?

· What purpose they used media? What gratifications does the new medium provide?

Phase III

· Includes investigations of the social, psychological, and physical effects of the medium

· How much time do people spend with the medium? Does it change people’s perspectives about anything?

· What do the users of the medium want and expect to hear or see?

Phase IV

· Research is conducted to determine how the medium can be improved, what is the impact of it either in its use or through technological developments

· Can the medium provide information or entertainment to more types of people?

· How can new technology be used to perfect or enhance the sight and or sound of the medium?

· Is there a way to change the content to be more valuable or entertaining?

52. Disturbances in research study

· Research guides do not have a thorough knowledge of the various methodologies. Before undertaking research projects, researchers should be well equipped with all the methodological aspects

· Poor communication gets on the way of the progress of the research. It is important to communicate with the supervisor to clarify the doubts regarding the research topic

· Spending ample time in learning the skills and practical implementation consumes a lot of time

· Not having a deadline can be troublesome during the research journey

· It can be difficult to deal with the quantity of literature that one might have accessed

· A literature review has to go beyond being a series of references and citations. You need to interpret the literature and be able to position it within the context of your study

· Insufficiency of data is a potential problem. Most of the business establishments are of the opinion that researchers may misuse the data provided by them.

· Researchers with low self-esteem feel less motivated thereby affecting the quality of the work

· A lot of time and energy is spent on tracing appropriate books, journals, reports, etc

· Also many of the libraries are not able to get copies of new reports and other publications on time

53. Significance of semiotic approach

· Semiotics is generally described as the study of signs

· These theories are important because they reveal the way in which signs communicate ideas, attitudes and beliefs to us.

· In the context of television, film, newspapers and other forms of media, semiology explains the way in which images are used to represent and relay information to the audience.

· Semiotics is a key tool to ensure that intended meanings are unambiguously understood by the person on the receiving end.

· Semiotics can thus be a powerful tool to create awareness, develop brand associations and add brand values that make a difference in the market.

· Semiotic system provides people with a variety of resources for making meaning

54. Visual semiotics / Sign in semiotics

· Semiotics is generally described as the study of signs

· Visual semiotics is a sub-domain of semiotics that analyses the way visual images communicate a message.

· Semiotics tries to investigate how images create meaning.

· A sign can be a word, sound, a touch or visual image. A sign has two components: the signifier, which is the sound, image, or word, and the signified, which is the concept or meaning the signifier represents.

Three types of signifiers are

· An Icon has a physical resemblance to the signified, the thing being represented. A photograph is a good example as it certainly resembles whatever it depicts.

· An Index shows evidence of what’s being represented. A good example is using an image of smoke to indicate fire.

· A Symbol has no resemblance between the signifier and the signified. The connection between them must be culturally learned. Numbers and alphabets are good examples. There’s nothing inherent in the number 9 to indicate what it represents. It must be culturally learned.

· The meaning of sign is created by people

· Common examples of semiotics include traffic signs, emojis, and emoticons, etc

· It is used to increase brand image of a company

· Written and spoken language is full of semiotics in the form of intertextuality, metaphors, etc.

· Semiotics is a key study into the evolution of human consciousness

55. Importance of mass media research

· Mass media research is the study of information related to any form of mass communication.

· It helps business decide which types and forms of social media are most beneficial to use for business purposes

· For health and well-being reasons, mass media research is important

· It helps scientists find out how mass media impacts people.

· It helps businesses figure out which forms of advertising work

· The number of people watching or reading a mass media form and then turning into customers.

56. Content analysis advantages and disadvantages

Advantages of Content Analysis

· Looks directly at communication via texts

· Can allow for both quantitative and qualitative operations

· Can provides valuable historical/cultural insights over time through analysis of texts

· Can be used to interpret texts for purposes such as the development of expert systems

· Is an unobtrusive means of analyzing interactions

· Provides insight into complex models of human thought and language use

Disadvantages of Content Analysis

§ Can be extremely time consuming

§ It is subject to increased error

§ It is often lacking of theoretical base

§ It tends too often to simply consist of word counts

§ Often disregards the context that produced the text

§ Can be difficult to automate or computerize

57. Empirical research

· Empirical research is a type of research methodology that makes use of verifiable evidence in order to arrive at research outcomes.

· This type of research relies solely on evidence obtained through observation or scientific data collection methods.

· Empirical research can be carried out using qualitative or quantitative observation methods, depending on the data sample

· Empirical research carries a scientific investigation

· An empirical research is usually divided into 4 parts which are the introduction, methodology, findings, and discussions.

· The introduction provides a background of the empirical study while the methodology describes the research design, processes, and tools for the systematic investigation.

· The findings refer to the research outcomes and the discussions highlight the significance of the study and its contributions to knowledge.

Examples of Empirical Research

· An empirical research study can be carried out to determine if listening to happy music improves the mood of individuals. The researcher may need to conduct an experiment that involves exposing individuals to happy music to see if this improves their moods.

· An empirical research study can also be carried out to determine the effects of a new drug on specific groups of people.

58. Deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning

Deductive reasoning

· Deductive reasoning works from the more general to the more specific.

· Sometimes this is informally called a “top-down” approach.

· We might begin with thinking up a theory about our topic of interest. We then narrow that down into more specific hypotheses that we can test. We narrow down even further when we collect observations to address the hypotheses. This ultimately leads us to be able to test the hypotheses with specific data – a confirmation (or not) of our original theories.

Inductive reasoning

· Inductive reasoning moving from specific observations to broader generalizations and theories.

· Informally, we sometimes call this a “bottom up” approach

· In inductive reasoning, we begin with specific observations and measures, begin to detect patterns and regularities, formulate some tentative hypotheses that we can explore, and finally end up developing some general conclusions or theories.

59. Significance of statistical software packages in research

Quantitative data analysis software

(a) Apache Spark

· A unified analytics engine for large scale data processing

· It also includes a library – MLlib, that provides a progressive set of machine algorithms for repetitive data

(b) Python

· An increasingly popular tool for data analysis

· Libraries take advantage of the beauty, flexibility and performance of Python

(c) R

· A free software environment for statistical computing and graphics

· It compiles and runs on a wide variety of UNIX platforms, Windows and MacOS

(d) SPSS (Statistical Packages for Social Sciences)

· A general purpose statistical package widely used in academic research for editing, analyzing, and presenting numerical data

· It is compatible with all file formats that are commonly used for structured data such as Excel, plain text file, and SQL database

(e) Stata

· A powerful and flexible general purpose statistical software package used in research in the fields of economics, sociology, political science

· It’s capabilities include data management, statistical analysis, graphics, etc

Qualitative data analysis

(a) NVivo

· A qualitative data analysis computer software package produced by QSR international

· It has been designed for qualitative researchers working with very rich text based and multimedia information

(b) MAXQDA

· An alternative to Nvivo and handles a similar range of data types allowing organization, color coding and retrieval of data

· Text, audio or video may equally be dealt with by this software package

· A range of dat visualization tools are also included

(c) Atlas.ti

· Software for the qualitative analysis of large bodies of textual, graphical, audio and video data

· It offers a variety of tools for accomplishing the tasks associated with any systemeatic approach to soft data, that is material which cannot be analyzed by formal

60. Explain concepts and constructs with example

Concepts

· A concept is a generally accepted collection of meanings or characteristics associated with certain events, objects, conditions, situations, and behaviors.

· Classifying and categorizing objects or events that have common characteristics creates concepts.

· We design hypotheses using concepts.

· We devise measurement concepts by which to test these hypothetical statements.

· We gather data using these measurement concepts.

· The success of research hinges on (1) how clearly we conceptualize and (2) how well others understand the concepts we use.

· For example, when we survey people on the question of customer loyalty, the questions we use need to tap faithfully the attitudes of the participants.

· The challenge is to develop concepts that others will clearly understand.

Constructs

· A construct is an image or abstract idea specifically invented for a given research and/or theory-building purpose.

· Typical marketing constructs are brand loyalty, satisfaction, preference, awareness, knowledge.

Examples of constructs

· Brand awareness – percentage of respondents having heard of a designated brand

· Attitude towards a brand – the number of respondents and their intensity of feeling positive or negative toward a specific brand.

· Intentions of purchase – the number of people who are planning to buy the specified object within a designated time period

· Importance of factors – what factors and their intensity influence a person’s purchase choice

61. Data distribution

· A data distribution is a function or a listing which shows all the possible values of the data.

· It also tells how often each value occurs.

· The data in a distribution will be ordered from smallest to largest, and graphs and charts

· From a distribution you can calculate the probability of any one particular observation in the sample space

· The function of a distribution that shows the density of the values of our data is called a probability density function

· There are some statistical distributions that come up so often they have received their own names; One of these is the bell-shaped curve, also called the normal distribution.

62. How do you test the validity and reliability of research instrument?

Testing Validity

Validity refers to the degree to which an instrument accurately measures what it intends to measure. Three common types of validity for researchers and evaluators to consider are.

§ Content validity – indicates the extent to which items adequately measure or represent the content of the property or trait that the researcher wishes to measure.

§ Construct validity – indicates the extent to which a measurement method accurately represents a construct and produces an observation

§ Criterion-related validity - indicates the extent to which the instrument’s scores correlate with an external criterion either at present or in the future.

Testing Reliability

Reliability refers to the degree to which an instrument yields consistent results.

§ Internal consistency reliability - looks at the consistency of the score of individual items on an instrument, with the scores of a set of items.

§ Test-retest - measures the correlation between scores from one administration of an instrument to another, usually within an interval of 2 to 3 weeks.

§ Inter-rater reliability - Common situations where more than one rater is involved may occur when more than one person conducts classroom observations.

63. Qualitative Vs quantitative variables

1. Quantitative

· A quantitative variable is a variable that is, the values it can take are numbers.

· Quantitative variables are divided into two types: discrete and continuous

(a) Discrete

· Quantitative discrete variables are variables for which the values it can take are countable and have a finite number of possibilities.

· Number of children per family, Number of students in a class are examples of discrete variables

(b) Continuous

· Quantitative continuous variables are variables for which the values are not countable and have an infinite number of possibilities.

· For example: Age, Weight, Height - A 28-year-old man could actually be 28 years, 7 months, 16 days, 3 hours, 4 minutes, 5 seconds, 31 milliseconds, 9 nanoseconds old.

(2) Qualitative

· Qualitative variables are variables that are not numerical and which values fits into categories.

· Qualitative variables are divided into two types: nominal and ordinal.

(a) Nominal

· A qualitative nominal variable is a qualitative variable where no ordering is possible in the levels.

· For example, the variable gender is nominal because there is no order in the levels female/male.

· Eye color is another example of a nominal variable because there is no order among blue, brown or green eyes.

(b) Ordinal

· A qualitative ordinal variable is a qualitative variable with an order implied in the levels.

· For instance, if the severity of road accidents has been measured on a scale such as light, moderate and fatal accidents.

· Another good example is health, which can take values such as poor, reasonable, good, or excellent.

64. Different types of observation method for data collection

Structured observation – The observation is characterized by a careful definition of the units to be observed, the style of recording the observed information, standardized conditions of observation and the selection of pertinent data of observation is called as structured observation

Unstructured observation – The observation is to take place without planning of the observation of units, the recording method and the condition is called as unstructured observation.

Participant observation – If the observer observes by making himself, a member of the group he is observing so that he can experience what the members of the group experience, is called participant observation

Non participant observation – When the observer observes as a detached person without any attempt on his part to experience through participation what others feel, is called non participant observation

Disguised observation – The observer presence may be unknown to the people he is observing it is said to be disguised observation

Controlled observation – The observation takes place according to definite pre-arranged plans, involving experimental procedure, it is called controlled observation

Uncontrolled observation – The observation takes place in the natural setting it is said to be uncontrolled observation.

65. Visual imagery

· Visual imagery related to graphics, visual scenes, pictures, or the sense of sight.

· Auditory imagery related to sounds, noises, music, or the sense of hearing.

· Visual Image what you get when you recall a vision-related experience from long term memory

· Visual Imagery the representation of perceptual information in the absence of visual input

· We use it to reason and solve problems, especially when things are no longer present in our visual environment

· It can tell us something about the format of our representation of the world

66. Sources of data collection for case study

Personal interviews

· It is also called as a face-to-face survey, is a survey method that is utilized when a specific target population is involved.

· The main purpose is to explore the responses of the people to gather more and deeper information.

· It is used to probe the answers of the respondents and at the same time, to observe the behavior of the respondents, either individually or as a group

Direct observation

· It is a method of collecting evaluative information in which the evaluator watches the subject in his or her usual environment.

· It is used when other data collection procedures, such as surveys, questionnaires, etc., are not effective

· When the goal is to evaluate an ongoing behavior process, event, or situation; that can be readily seen.

Psychometric tests

· Psychometrics is the field of study concerned with the theory and technique of psychological measurement

· It includes the measurement of knowledge, abilities, attitudes, and personality traits.

· The field is primarily concerned with the study of differences between individuals.

Archival records

· Archival methods are those that involve the study of historical documents

· These preexisting data are gathered by current researchers.

· Archival research data may be collected from numerical records, verbal documents, or visual artifacts.

67. Differentiate between research question and hypothesis

RESEARCH QUESTION	HYPOTHESIS
Research questions are used in many fields including literature, and sociology.	Hypothesis are part of the scientific research method
Research questions are always written as questions.	Hypothesis are written as statements.
For example, a research question would ask, "What is the effect of heat on the effectiveness of bleach?"	A hypothesis would state, "I predict heat will diminish the effectiveness of bleach."
A research question requires less preparation, but focus and structure is critical.	Before writing a hypothesis, the researcher must determine what others have discovered about this subject.
The researcher using only a research question will write the answer to the question.	When writing the conclusion for research conducted using a hypothesis, the researcher will write whether the hypothesis was correct or incorrect.

68. Research is much concerned with proper fact finding, analysis and evaluation. Do you agree?

· Yes, research is about finding facts, analyzing them and then evaluating the results.

· Research begins with a theory or thesis statement.

· This statement has to be proven or disproven as true/false.

· It means that research is concerned with finding facts, analyzing facts and evaluating the response, in order to form a conclusion regarding the research topic.

· The ethical, moral, and scientific belief is that all research has to be based on facts.

· Theory is proved or disproved based on what could be found at that time.

· It goes back to the fact, that proper information, analysis, and evaluation are needed in order to conduct proper research.

· Inaccurate facts will skew the data and render the entire research invalid.

69. Theory of syllogism

· A syllogism is a kind of logical argument that applies deductive reasoning to arrive at a conclusion

· It is based on two or more propositions that are declared or assumed to be true.

· Aristotle defines, from the combination of a general statement and a specific statement, a conclusion is deduced.

· For example, knowing that all men are mortal and that Socrates is a man, we may conclude that Socrates is mortal.

· Syllogistic arguments are usually represented in a three-line form:

o All men are mortal.

o Socrates is a man.

o Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

· Facts are determined by combining existing statements

· Two syllogistic theories are Aristotelian syllogism and Stoic syllogism.

70. Characteristics, sources of data, purposes of case study approach

Characteristics of Case Study

1. The number of unit to be studied is small.

2. It studies a social unit deeply and thoroughly.

3. It is qualitative as well as quantitative.

4. It covers sufficient wide cycle of time.

5. It has continuity in nature.

Sources of Data for Case Study

1. Personal documents, viz diaries, memories, autobiographies, letters etc of the researcher.

2. Qualification and interest of the researcher.

3. Life history of the respondents.

4. Motives and objectives of the study.

Case study purpose

· Describe an individual situation (case), e.g. a person, business, organization, or institution, in detail

· Identify the key issues of the case

· Analyse the case using relevant theoretical concepts

· Recommend a course of action for that particular case

71. Explain why and how the study of narrative is important in the analysis of movie picture.

· Narration means how the story is told

· Narrative refers to the development of a story, the roles and relationships of the character within it.

· For a film to be a narrative it must present us with a series of events in ways that suggests connection between one event and the next.

· Narratives must be made up of parts that are related usually in a cause and effect way

· Story refers to the events of the narrative whereas plot refers to how the story is presented in terms of order and narrative logic

· The story is the ‘what’ in a narrative that is depicted, and the plot is ‘how’

· The most significant way plot shapes story is through chronology – the order in which the story is told

· Narrative chronological videos used to show past events, cause and effect, and psychologically motivated characters

· Action is chronological but significant elements of the story are told in flashback, and some foretelling is used.

· Cause and effect used but less obviously communicated

72. Importance of sign, code and symbol in the visual analysis

Sign

· A sign is anything that communicates a meaning

· Signs consist of three inter-related parts: a sign, an object, and an interpretant.

· Smoke as a sign for fire

· The object is best thought of as whatever is signified.

· The interpretant is best thought of as the understanding that we have of the sign/object relation.

Codes

· Logical codes are monosemic (the signifier stands for only one signified)

· Social and aesthetic codes are polysemic (the signifier can stand for more than one signified)

· Logical codes are denotative

· Aesthetic and social codes are connotative

· Logical codes are generally digital

· Aesthetic and social codes are more often analogical

· Logical codes are conventional

· Social and aesthetic codes are either conventional or new

Importance of symbol

· A symbol is any image or thing that stands for something else.

· Every word is a symbol for the idea it represents. Flags are symbols for nations.

· Symbols add layers of meaning to a story, poem, or other creative work.

· They enable an author to deliver an idea or message within a narrative, a message on multiple levels.

· In other words, symbols add depth.

73. What is meant by operational definition? Explain its purpose

· Operational definition is fundamental when collecting all types of data

· It describes the variables you will use as indicators and the procedures you will use to observe or measure the variables.

· The operational definition of a variable is the specific way in which it is measured in that study.

· An operational definition, when applied to data collection, is a clear, concise detailed definition of a measure.

· It is particularly important when a decision is being made about whether something is correct or incorrect

· The data collection will be meaningless if the definition of an error has not been specified.

· When collecting data, it is essential that everyone in the system has the same understanding and collects data in the same way.

· It should therefore be made before the collection of data begins.

· It is necessary to define how to collect the data.

· It is easy to assume that those collecting the data understand what and how to complete the task.

· People have different opinions and views, and these will affect the data collection.

· The only way to ensure consistent data collection is by means of a detailed operational definition that eliminates ambiguity.

74. Difference between manifest content and latent content

Manifest content

· Manifest content is the concrete surface content (data).

· Advantages with manifest content are ease of testing and reliability and a disadvantage is its validity.

· Manifest content analysis is defined as describing what is occurring on the surface.

· Manifest content analysis is concerned with data that are easily observable both to researchers and the coders

· Manifest content is evidence that is directly seen such as the words in an interview.

· In manifest analyses the researcher is thought to maintain distance and separation from the objects of study

· Manifest approach seeking only to describe what is observed

Latent content

· Latent content refers to the underlying meaning of content such as the interpretation of an interview.

· Latent content analysis is defined as interpreting what is hidden deep within the text.

· The role of the researcher is to discover the indirect meaning in participants’ experiences.

· Latent content analysis acknowledges that the researcher is intimately involved in the analytical process

· Latent analyses underscore the importance of the researcher co-creating meaning with the text.

· Latent content analysis, there are two distinct types: latent pattern and latent projective.

· The latent pattern approach seeking to discover an unseen pattern.

75. Explain hermeneutics analysis

· Hermeneutics is the theory and methodology of interpretation

· Hermeneutic research emphasizes subjective interpretations in the research of meanings of texts, art, culture, social phenomena and thinking.

· Hermeneutics is a wider discipline which includes written, verbal, and non-verbal communication.

· Hermeneutic research includes various different approaches.

· Methods of analysis may also vary

· Hermeneutic analysis enables us to elicit an in-depth understanding of meanings of human practices, culture, works of art and texts.

· Understanding is produced through systematic interpretation processes.

· These processes are known as a hermeneutic circle

· Interpretation of details affects the interpretation of the entire phenomenon.

· You can combine hermeneutic analysis with other methods of analysis that aim to interpret and understand meanings.

76. Mixed research method

· Researchers will pair two methods together in the same study examining the same phenomenon is mixed research method.

· Example - Researchers will use qualitative methods to develop quantitative research

· The benefit of mixed methods is that it offers a richer picture of a communication phenomenon by gathering data and information in multiple ways.

Example 1: In surveys (quantitative), a researcher interested in understanding how a supervisor sharing personal information with his or her subordinate affects the way the subordinate perceives his or her supervisor. We could also add interviews (qualitative) with subordinates.

Example 2: In content analysis, measuring representation of different races (quantitative) during prime time television. While we can count the appearances of members of different races and compare (qualitative) that to the composition of the general population.

77. Explain visual analysis

· Visual analysis is a method of understanding art

· It focuses on an artwork's visual elements, such as color, line, texture, and scale.

· It is a description and explanation of visual structure.

· The purpose of visual analysis is to understand how an artwork communicate ideas, content, or meaning.

· Visual analysis is often used as a starting point for art-historical writing.

· This is especially important when exposing hidden ideologies.

Visual analysis can include three phases.

Phase One - Observation

· Observation means closely looking at and identifying the visual attributes of an artwork

· It is trying to describe them carefully and accurately in own words.

· The observation phase encourages students to look, think, and find good language to communicate what they notice.

Phase Two - Analysis

· Analysis requires you to think about your observations and try to make statements about the work based on the evidence of your observations

· This phase encourages students to think about how the specific visual elements they’ve identified combine together to create a whole, and what effect that whole has on the viewer.

Phase Three - Interpretation

· To use visual analysis as the basis for an interpretation of an artwork, have students formulate research questions based on what they have observed

· In this phase, students balance observations, description, and analysis with facts about the artist and historical context from trustworthy published sources.

78. How is an interpretative method of analysis applied to images?

· Interpretive research attempts to interpret social reality through the viewpoints of the participants

· These interpretations are heavily contextualized, and are naturally less generalizable to other contexts.

Criteria that can be used to judge the rigor of interpretive research.

Dependability - Interpretive research can be viewed as dependable or authentic if two researchers assessing the same phenomenon using the same set of evidence independently arrive at the same conclusions or the same researcher observing the same or a similar phenomenon at different times arrives at similar conclusions.

Credibility - Interpretive research can be considered credible if readers find its inferences to be believable.

Confirmability - Confirmability refers to the extent to which the findings reported in interpretive research can be independently confirmed by others (participants).

Transferability - Transferability in interpretive research refers to the extent to which the findings can be generalized to other settings.

79. Communication research

· Communication research is concerned with identifying, exploring, and measuring the factors that surround communication, in any form and regarding any topic.

· In the field of communication, there are three main research methodologies: quantitative, qualitative, and rhetorical.

(a) Quantitative Research

· Quantitative research seeks to establish knowledge through the use of numbers and measurement.

· The most commonly used methodologies are experiments, surveys, content analysis, and meta-analysis.

Experiments: Experiments are an empirical form of research that enable the researcher to study communication in a controlled environment.

Surveys: Surveys are often used to collect information from large groups of people using scales that have been tested for validity and reliability.

Content Analysis: Content analysis is used to count the number of occurrences of a phenomenon within a source of media. For example, a researcher might be interested in finding out if people of certain races are underrepresented on television.

Meta-Analysis: Researcher takes a collection of quantitative studies and analyzes the data as a whole to get understand of a communication phenomenon. For example, a researcher might be curious about how video games affect aggression.

(b) Qualitative Research

· Qualitative research is interested in exploring subjects’ perceptions and understandings as they relate to communication.

· Qualitative researcher, might interview students to find out what they like and dislike about a course.

Interviews: This typically consists of a researcher having a discussion with a participant based on questions developed by the researcher.

Focus Groups: A researcher using this method gathers a group of people with intimate knowledge of a communication phenomenon.

Participant Observation: This method involves the researcher watching participants in their natural environment.

(c) Rhetorical Research

· Rhetorical research is a form of textual analysis.

· It involves selecting a text, choosing a rhetorical method, analyzing the text, and writing the criticism.

· A researcher could be interested in how women in management roles are portrayed in television. They could select a group of popular shows and analyze that as the text. This might result in a rhetorical essay about the behaviors displayed by these women and what the text says about women in management roles.

· A probability sampling method is any method of sampling that utilizes some form of random selection.

· In order to have a random selection method, you must set up some process or procedure that assures that the different units in the population have equal probabilities of being chosen

Simple Random Sampling

Stratified Random Sampling

Systematic Random Sampling

· It is a probability sampling method in which sample members from a larger population are selected according to a random starting point but with a fixed, periodic interval.

· It is to select every 15th name of a list or every 10th house on one side of a street and so on

Cluster (Area) Random Sampling

Multi-Stage Sampling

Survey research methods

Select a case

Build a theoretical framework

Collect data

Describe and analyze the case

1. Determine the requirements

2. Choose a topic

3. Conduct preliminary research

4. Narrow down your topic

5. Write your question

(1) Define the population and sample

Populations

Samples

(3) Design the survey questions

(4) Distribute the survey and collect responses

(5) Analyze the survey results

(6) Write up the survey results

Identifying a research problem

Planning an experimental research study

Conducting the experiment

Analyzing the data

Writing the research paper

Descriptive statistics

Measures of Frequency

Measures of Central Tendency

Inferential statistics

Text Analysis

Statistical Analysis

Descriptive Analysis

Inferential Analysis

Diagnostic Analysis

Predictive Analysis

Prescriptive Analysis

Perform Item Analysis

1. Select the content you will analyze

2. Define the units and categories of analysis

3. Develop a set of rules for coding

4. Code the text according to the rules

5. Analyze the results and draw conclusions

1. Quantitative

(a) Discrete

(b) Continuous

(2) Qualitative

(a) Nominal

(b) Ordinal

(a) Quantitative Research

(b) Qualitative Research

(c) Rhetorical Research

· It is to select every 15^th name of a list or every 10^th house on one side of a street and so on