Introduction to Human Communication

Part – A

 

  1.      Body language 

·        Body language is a type of nonverbalcommunication in which physical behavior is to express or convey information.

·        Such behavior includes facial expressions,body posture, gestures, eye movement, touch and the use of space. 

2.      Gesture 

·        It is a form of non-verbal communication in which body actions communicate the messages. 

·        Gestures include movement of the hands, face, or other parts of the body. 

3.      Proxemics 

·        Proxemics is the study of how people use and perceive the physical space around them.

·        The space between the sender and the receiver of a message influences the way the message is interpreted.

·        The perception and use of space varies significantly across cultures 

4.      Feed back 

·        Feedback is respond to the communicated message.

·        This response of a receiver to sender's message is called Feedback.

·        It enables to evaluate the effectiveness of message. 

5.      Medium 

·        In the communication process, a medium is a channel or system of communication—the means by which information (the message) is transmitted between a speaker or writer (the sender) and an audience (the receiver).

·        Newspaper, magazine, radio, television are some of the examples of medium 

6.      Oculesics 

·        Oculesics, a subcategory of kinesics

·        It is the study of eye movement, eye behavior, gaze, and eye-related nonverbal communication. 

7.      Cyber space 

·        “Virtual” world created by links between computers, Internet -enabled devices, servers, routers, and other components of the Internet’s infrastructure. 

8.      Context

·        Context is used in communication model is as the communicative setting of statements in space and time.

·        The context occurs in the event and availability is based on person’s mood, attitude, culture and personality.

·        Example – If we tell about a movies positive and negative information to others, we cannot tell the whole story and it is not possible also. We miss information which we perceived. The story conveyed to other person is based on the story you like, your favorite hero, heroine, etc. 

9.      Gender 

·        The state of being male or female.

·        Grammatical gender is associated with natural distinctions of sex. 

10. Icon 

·        The icon is the pattern that  physically resembles what it `stands for'.

·        A picture of your face is an icon of you. The computer symbol on the desktop is the icon of My Computer

11. Motivation 

·        It is the process of stimulating people to actions to accomplish the goals.

·        A person who is motivated by money may desire to work more hours for higher pay, or accept a job as a salesperson in which the pay is based on the number of products sold. 

12. Metonymy 

·        Metonymy is a figure of speech in which something is called by a new name that is related in meaning to the original thing or concept.

·        Example -  The pen is mightier than the sword is the example for metonymy. "Pen" stands for thought and reason, while "sword" represents physical warfare. 

13. Euphemis 

·        A euphemism is a polite expression used in place of words or phrases that otherwise might be considered harsh or unpleasant to hear. 

·        Example – rest room for toilet room, pre-owned vehicles for used cars, passed on for died. 

14. Articulation 

·        It is verbal communication.

·        Articulation is the movement of the tongue, lips, jaw, and other speech organs in ways that make speech sounds.  

15. Charisma 

·        A personal attractiveness or interestingness that enables you to influence others.

·        They influence others at a deep emotional level, to communicate effectively with them, and to make strong interpersonal connections 

16. Empathy

·        It means you can understand what a person is feeling in a given moment.

·        It helps us to communicate our ideas in a way that makes sense to others, and it helps us understand others when they communicate with us. 

17. Slang 

·        A type of language consisting of words and phrases that are regarded as very informal, are more common in speech than writing.

·        It is typically restricted to a particular context or group of people. 

18. Semantic 

·        Semantics in the context ofcommunication refers to the meanings of words.

·        Semantic barriers refer to the obstacles caused in communication due to problems with the interpretation of word meanings. 

19. Group communication 

·        Group communication is defined as where more than two individuals are involved in exchange of ideas, skills and interests.

·        It can be primary group, secondary group, religious group, study group, work group, etc. 

20. Tunnel vision 

·        Tunnel vision is defined as one's tendency to focus on a single goal or point of view.

·        The person is looking at things from a very narrow perspective, and is not seeing or aware of all the facts.  

21. Marshal McLuhan 

·        Marshall McLuhan was a Canadian professor, philosopher, and public intellectual.

·        His famous quote was “The medium is the message”. 

22. Mass culture 

·        Mass culture is the set of ideas and values that develop from a common exposure to the same media, news sources, music, and art. 

·        It is distributed to individuals instead of arising from their day-to-day interactions with each other. 

23. Perception 

·        Perception is the process of assessing information in your surroundings.  

·        The ability to see, hear, or become aware of something through the senses. 

24. Media imperialism 

·        Media imperialism is a theory based upon an over-concentration of mass media from larger nations as a significant variable in negatively affecting smaller nations.

·        In which the national identity of smaller nations is lessened or lost. 

25. George Gerbner 

·        George Gerbner was a professor of communication and the founder of cultivation theory.

·        He stressed the dynamic nature of communication in his work and also the factor which affecting the reliability of communication. 

26. Cultivation theory 

·        Cultivation theory examines the long-term effects of television developed by Geroge Gerbner.

·        Cultivation theory states that the more time people spend 'living' in the television world, the more likely they are to believe social reality aligns with reality portrayed on television 

27. Attitude 

·        The attitude of the sender and the receiver creates the effect of the message.

·        The person’s attitude towards self, the receiver and the environment changes the meaning and effect of the message. 

28. Ritua ls 

·        The construction of symbolic reality–represents, maintains, adapts, and shares the beliefs of a society in time.

·        It is sharing, participation, association and the possession of a common faith 

29. Symbols 

·        Symbols take the form of words, sounds, gestures, ideas or visual images and are used to convey other ideas and beliefs.

·        For example, a red octagon may be a symbol for "STOP". 

30. Empiricism 

·        Empiricism is a theory that states that knowledge comes only from sensory experience.

·        It emphasizes the role of experience and evidence, especially sensory perception, in the formation of ideas, and argues that the only knowledge humans can have is a posteriori (i.e. based on experience). 

31. Genetic 

·        Genetics is the study of genes, genetic variation, and heredity in living organisms.

·        It is generally considered a field of biology, and is strongly linked with the study of information systems. 

32. Stop sign 

·        The STOP sign is a regulatory sign that is used when traffic is required to stop.

·        It is a red octagon that has a white border and large white letters that read STOP.  

33. Emotion 

·        Having feelings that are easily excited and openly displayed.

·        An emotion is a strong feeling, like the emotion you feel when you see your best friend at the movies with a group of people who cause trouble for you. 

34. Spo nsor 

·        A person or organization that pays for or contributes to the costs involved in staging a sporting or artistic event in return for advertising.

·        Airtel is the sponsor for Super singer program in Vijay TV. 

35. Status 

·        STATUS – It refers to the relative rank or standing that an individual has in the eyes of others.

·        It is shaped by one's background, education, reputation, perceived power, and position in an organization's hierarchy. 

36. Culture 

·        Culture can be defined as the rituals, practices, and symbolic and physical artifacts that shape the behaviors of individuals, groups, institutions, and societies.

·        Communication is central to the construction, maintenance and transmission of culture. 

37. Shouting 

·        It is a kind of verbal communication.

·        The problem with shouting is that it isn't really communicating — it's being aggressive and intimidating 

38. Attribution 

·        Attribution theory is concerned with how individuals interpret events and how this relates to their thinking and behavior. 

·        Attribution theory assumes that people try to determine why people do what they do 

39. Competence 

·        Communication competence refers to the knowledge of effective and appropriate communication patterns

·        It is the ability to use and adapt that knowledge in various contexts.  

40. Transition

·        Transitions are words, phrases, or visual devices that help the audience follow the speaker's ideas

·        It connects the main points and focus the audience's attention 

41. Uncertainty in communication 

·        People feel unpleasant when they are uncertain (unclear) about the other person's behavior or actions.

·        So they try to reduce uncertainty through interpersonal communication 

42. Sufficiency principle - People use limited cognitive resources, or use an "economy-minded" approach to information processing when presented with persuasive information. 

43. Pragmatics 

·        Pragmatics refers to the way in which children use language within social situations.

·        It is important for a person to quickly understand the rules of the person with whom they are communicating 

44. Defensive listening 

·        Taking innocent comments as personal attacks

·        Listeners misinterpret or project feelings of insecurity, jealousy, and lack of confidence in the other person 

45. Cultural imperialism theory 

·        Cultural imperialism is the practice of promoting a more powerful culture over a least known or desirable culture.

·        The former belongs to a large, economically or militarily powerful nation and the latter belongs to a smaller, less powerful one. 

46. Hegemony 

·        Hegemony is leadership or dominance of one group over another.   

·        An example of hegemony is the student government leadership in a school.

47. Sign 

·        Sign is a form of language that directly communicates with the targeted audiences

·        Sign could also mean a usage of gestures to convey information or instructions. 

48. Stimulus response model 

·        The stimulus response model is associated with the assumption that the mass media has powerful effects.

·        This model was the guiding perspective in the media effects field. 

49. Base and super structure 

·        The base comprises the forces and relations of production into which people enter to produce the necessities and amenities of life.

·        The superstructure consists of political institutions, culture, the legal system, and society's governing ideology. 

50. Supportive communication 

·        It has a specific set of goals and techniques. The primary goal of supportive communication is to resolve conflict in a situation.

·        It strengthens the relationship between the communicating individuals. 

51. Utterance 

·        An utterance is the smallest unit of speech.

·        It is a continuous piece of speech beginning and ending with a clear pause 

52. Denotation 

·        It is the literal (direct) meaning of a word

·        Example - the denotation for “blue” is the color blue.

·        Rose is a flower 

53. Connotation 

·        It is the indirect meaning of a word

·        For example, blue is a color, but it is also a word used to describe a feeling of sadness

·        Rose is a symbol of love

54. Text 

·        A text is any object that can be "read".

·        Text messages are used for personal, family, business and social purposes.

·        Governmental and non-governmental organizations use text messaging for communication between colleagues.

·        It transmits some kind of informative message. 

55. Sender 

·        It is a person who sends message to the receiver and gets feedback from them.

·        Sender starts the communication process and encode the message 

56. Encoding 

·        Converting our idea or thoughts into symbol, such as text, audio, video, etc.

·        In a communication process the sender encodes the message.

·        Ex – A person encodes his friend’s birthday wishes in the form of text, visual (greeting card), voice message, etc.  

57. Decoding 

·        Converting symbols such as text, audio, video, etc. into meaningful message is called decoding.

·        In a communication process the receiver decodes information

·        Ex – A person understand his birthday wishes message from the received text, visuals, voice message, etc. 

58. Selective exposure 

·        It is the tendency of an individual to favor information which reinforces their pre-existing views while avoiding contradictory information

·        These selections are made based on their perspectives, beliefs, attitudes and decisions. 

59. Selective perception 

·        It is the tendency not to notice and more quickly forget stimuli that cause emotional discomfort and contradict our prior beliefs.

·        For e xample – a teacher may have a favorite student because they are biased by in-group favoritism. 

60. Selective retention 

·        People more accurately remember messages that are closer to their interest, values and beliefs.

·        Selecting what to keep in the memory, narrowing the information flow 

61. Noise 

·        Noise refers to anything that interferes with the communication process between a speaker and an audience.

·        Noise can be external (a physical sound) or internal (a mental disturbance), and it can disrupt the communication process at any point. 

62. Halo effect 

·        The "halo effect" is when one trait (characteristic) of a person or thing is used to make an overall judgment of that person or thing.

·        It is the tendency for positive impressions of a person, company, brand or product to positively influence one's opinion. 

63. Cohort effect 

·        A cohort is a group of people who share a common identity in some way.

·        A college freshman class, born in a certain time, region are said to be a cohort. 

64. Etymology 

·        The study of the origin of a word and the historical development of its meaning.

·        An example of etymology is tracing a word back to its Latin roots. 

65. Metatalk 

·        Meta-talk focuses on "how we talk about our disagree-ment."

·        Significant relationship problems suggest that people can't think and communicate effectively. 

66. Sleeper effect

·        The sleeper effect is a psychological phenomenon that relates to persuasion.

·        It is a delayed increase of the effect of a message  

67. Politeness 

·        Politeness is one of the central features of human communication.

·        It is a human phenomenon, yet expressed differently in different cultures 

68. Chronemics 

·        Chronemics is the study of the role of time in communication.

·        Time is used as a message system, including punctuality, amount of time spent with others, and waiting time.

·        Time is an important non-verbal cue that factors heavily into communication, particularly in the world of business 

69. Stereotype 

·        A stereotype is a fixed, over generalized belief about a particular group or class of people.

·        By stereotyping we infer that a person has a whole range of characteristics and abilities that we assume all members of that group have 

70. www 

·        The World Wide Web, commonly known as the Web, is an information system where documents and other web resources are identified by Uniform Resource Locators (URL)

·        The resources of the Web are transferred via the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), may be accessed by users by a software application called a web browser 

71. Cybernetic 

·        Cybernetics refers to a tradition of complex systems where the interacting elements influence one another.

·        In this tradition communication is seen as a system of processing information, feedback and control 

72. Persuasion 

·        Pers uasion is defined as the act of trying to convince someone of something, or the means of convincing someone to do something.

·        Persuasion is used to sell products, recruit team members and increase productivity 

73. Syllogism 

·        Syllogism is a form of deductive reasoning where you arrive at a specific conclusion by examining two other premises or ideas. 

·        Syllogism derives from the Greek word syllogismos, meaning conclusion or inference

74. Emphasis 

·        Emphasisis the use of typographical effects to call attention to text.

·        These effects can include italics, bold, all-caps, quotation marks, color, and so on. 

·        Emphasis attracts the attention of the reader—or “cues” them—to actions they must take or to information they must consider carefully. 

75. Additive group task 

·        Group tasks are activities where a defined group of individuals need to perform a defined task and accomplish the goals assigned to them

·        Additive tasks refer to group work where each additional group member can add something to the output. 

76. Fundamental attribute error 

·        The fundamental attribution error is the tendency people have to overemphasize personal characteristics and ignore situational factors in judging others' behavior 

77. Interpersonal influence 

·        Interpersonal Influence is the act of changing the attitudes or behaviors of others

·        It focuses on power, persuasion, and boldness. 

78. Self esteem 

·        It is the evaluative element of the perception of oneself.

·        It is one's perception of self-appraisal, self-worth, attractiveness, and social competence. 

79. Audio cue 

·        To cue audio is to determine the desired initial playback point in a piece of rec orded music.

·        It is a technique often used in radio broadcasting and DJing.  

80. Myth 

·        Myth is consisting of narratives that play a fundamental role in a society, such as foundational tales or origin myths.

·        The main characters in myths are usually gods, demigods, or supernatural humans

81. Soft skills 

·        Soft skills are character traits and interpersonal skills that characterize a person's relationships with other people.

·        It is combination of people skills, social skills, communication skills, attitudes, mindsets, career attributes, social intelligence and emotional intelligence 

 

 Part – B & C

1.      Human communication

·        It is communication between human being

·        It is the process to understand how humans communicate

·        Humans communicate to request help, to inform other, etc

·        Humans communicate with each other by talking, body language or sign language

·        Intra-personal, inter personal, group and organizational communication are types of human communication

·        Human communication can be categorized as Rhetoric (study of influence) and relational (transactional communication)

 

2.      Elements / Process of communication

1. Sender - He is the person who sends his ideas to another person. If a manager wants to inform his subordinates about the introduction of a new product, he is the sender.

 

2. Message - The idea, feeling, suggestion, guidelines, orders or any content which is intended to be communicated is message. Here message is the introduction of new product.

 

3. Encoding - It is the process of converting idea, thinking or any other component of message into symbols, words, actions, diagram, sound, photographs, etc.

 

4. Media (Channel) - It is the medium, passage or route through which encoded message is passed by the sender to the receiver. There can be various forms of media - face to face communication, letters, radio, television, e-mail etc. For example manager inform about the introduction of a new product in a meeting through presentation.

 

5. Decoding - It means translating the encoded message into language understandable by the receiver. That means the symbols, words, actions, etc are understand by the receiver as message.

 

6. Receiver - He is the person who receives the message. For example, subordinates are receivers.

 

7. Feedback - It is the response by the receiver. It marks the completion of the communication process.

 

8. Noise - It is the hin drance in the process of communication. It can take place at any step in the entire process. It reduces the accuracy of communication e.g. 1) Disturbance in the telephone lines, 2) An inattentive receiver 3) Improper Decoding of Message etc.

 

3.      Process of Human communication

1. Sender - He is the person who sends his ideas to another person. For example, if a manager wants to inform his subordinates about the introduction of a new product, he is the sender.

2. Message - The idea, feeling, suggestion, guidelines, orders or any content which is intended to be communicated is message. For example, message is the introduction of new product.

 

3. Encoding - It is the process of converting idea, thinking or any other component of message into symbols, words, actions, diagram, sound, photographs, etc.

 

4. Media (Channel) - It is the medium, passage or route through which encoded message is passed by the sender to the receiver. There can be various forms of media - face to face communication, letters, radio, television, e-mail etc. For example manager inform about the introduction of a new product in a meeting through presentation.

 

5. Decoding - It means translating the encoded message into language understandable by the receiver. That means the symbols, words, actions, etc are understand by the receiver as message.

 

6. Receiver - He is the person who receives the message. For example, subordinates are receivers.

 

7. Feedback - It is the response by the receiver. It marks the completion of the communication process.

 

8. Noise - It is the hindrance in the process of communication. It can take place at any step in the entire process. It reduces the accuracy of communication e.g. 1) Disturbance in the telephone lines, 2) An inattentive receiver 3) Improper Decoding of Message etc. 

9. Channel noise - Technical problem in the channel may affect transmission of message. Improper printing on paper, noisy transmission in radio and television are example of channel noise 

10. Semantic noise - It is misunderstanding of message by the receiver. The sender creates and sends the message that is not understand by the receiver in the same way  

11. Environment -   “The environment is the atmosphere, physical and psychological, where you send and receive messages.” The environment can include the tables, chairs, lighting, and sound equipment that are in the room. The room itself is an example of the environment.

4.      Characteristics of human communication

 (1) Two or More Persons:

·        Two or more persons are involved in a communication process.

·        The person who sends message is sender and receives message is receiver.

 

 (2) Exchange of Ideas:

·        The main purpose of communication is exchange of information.

·        In order to complete the process of communication there must be an exchange of ideas, orders, feelings, etc., among two or more persons.

 

(3) Mutual Understanding:

·        The receiver should receive the information in the same spirit with which it is sent by sender.

·        In the process of communication, it is more important to understand the information properly.

 

(4) Direct and Indirect Communication:

·        It is not necessary in communication that the receiver and giver of information should be face-to-face with each other.

·        Communication can be both direct and indirect. Direct communication means face-to-face conversation, while indirect communication is through other means.

 

(5) Continuous Process:

·        Communication is an endless process, as is the case with business where the manager continuously assigns work to his subordinates, tries to know the progress of the work and gives directions.

 

(6) Use of Words as well as Symbols:

·        There can be many means of communication, like the written, the oral and symbolic.

·        The examples of symbolic communication are the ringing of bell for closing a school or a college, giving some decision by the raising of a finger in cricket, etc.

5.      Importance of feedback

·        It is response to the communicated message

·        It completes the communication cycle

·        It maintains communication between sender and receiver

·        It Promotes understanding

·        It fulfills the need for recognition

·        It solicits more information

·        It acts as a tool of motivation

·        Feedback can be positive or negative

·        It can be internal or external

6.      Barriers to communication  (Types of noise 1-6)

Noise

 

·        Anything which disturb the communication process is called noise

·        It can be sound, time, etc

 

Channel noise

 

·        It is a distraction between source (medium) and the audience

·        Example - Weak television signal cannot broadcast program clearly

 

Semantic noise

 

·        The receiver who is misunderstanding the message is called semantic noise

·        This hinders the understanding of message

 

Syntactical noise

 

·        Communication can be disturbed by mistakes in grammar

·        It includes abrupt change in verb, tense during sentence making

 

Cultural noise

 

·        It occurs between the sender and receiver belongs to different culture

·        South Indian culture differs from North Indian culture

 

Psychological noise

 

·        It occurs due to mental interference

·        One person who is confused cannot take correct decision

 

Non-verbal communication – as noise

 

·        Sometimes body language, hand signals are misunderstood by receiver 

 

Timing

 

·        Communicator determine the appropriate time to transmit a message

·        Student cannot understand the subject when he/she is hungry

 

Information overload

 

·        An individual is presented with too much of information in short time

·        If the whole lesson is taught within 30 minutes it is overload to students

7.      Importance of communication

Survival – Communication is useful for a person to survive because he is depending on others

Relationship – Communication is used to build relationship. It is to identify relationship among people to accomplish different task

Persuasion – Communication is used to influence others. Advertisement, political meetings are used to influence public

Power – It is used in business organization to command power over others

Social need – Communication used to fulfill one’s desire in the society

Information – It is exchange of information from one person to another. It can be news, ideas, entertainment.

Decision making – Communication is used to take decision on various matters among famil y / in society

Publicity – Communication is used to announce message to public. Advertisements are used to announce about the product.

8.      7 Cs of communication

Completeness

 

·        Effective communications are complete

·        The receiver gets all the information completely

·        A complete message reduces the need for follow up questions

 

Conciseness

 

·        It is about keeping the message to a point

·        This is more about the content of the message rather than its length

 

Consideration

 

·        Effective communication takes into account, the receiver’s background.

·        There is no meaning in communicating with labour in English

 

Concreteness

 

·        The message is specific and vivid

·        It avoids misunderstanding and fosters trust

 

Courtesy

 

·        It means respecting the receiver’s culture values and belief

·        Message should be genuine and unbiased

 

Clearness

·        The message should be understand by the receiver clearly

·        It should reduces confusion

 

Correctness

 

·        Correct grammar, tense is credibility to message

·        It makes the reader to read and understand the message properly

9.      Fact of communication / nature of communication

·        Communication is related to every human activity

·        Communication involves two or more persons

·        Communication may be one way or two way process

·        The success of communication depends on proper understanding of sender and receiver

·        Communication in organization flows horizontally or vertically

·        Communication is media/channel based

10.      Written communication

·        Communication takes in the form of text

·        It is formal method of communication

·        It is used to send messages, orders or instructions in writing through letters, circulars, reports, etc.

 

Advantages

·        It creates permanent record of evidence

·        It gives the receiver sufficient time to read and think

·        It is a legal document

·        Order, allocation of work in written form help in fixation of responsibility 

·        It is easy to send unpleasant news through written communication

·        It can create goodwill and promote business

 

Disadvantages

·        It takes more time to write a message

·        It has no scope for immediate clarification

·        Mistakes are difficult to change

·        It is not effective in case of emergency 

11.      Oral / Verbal communication

·        It is the process of verbally transmitting information

·        It can be formal or informal

 

Advantages

 

·        It is very speed

·        The doubts are clarified immediately

·        No need of having reading knowledge

·        It is the form of discussion, face to face conversation

·        It is an important tool of motivation

 

Disadvantages

 

·        It involves emotion which may spoil the deal many times

·        It may not deliver concrete result

·        No record of evidence

12.      Non-verbal communication

Body Language 

            It is the movement of body or its parts used to communicate information. A firm handshake, given with a warm, dry hand, is a great way to establish trust. A weak, clammy handshake conveys a lack of trustworthiness.

 

Facial Expressions 

            It is communication through face. The human face can produce thousands of different expressions such as happy, sadness, anger, angry, etc. Happiness is associated with an upturned mouth and slightly closed eyes; fear with an open mouth and wide-eyed stare. The effect of facial expressions in conversation is instantaneous.

 

Posture 

            The position in which someone holds their body when standing or sitting is posture. The position of our body relative to a chair or another person is another powerful silent messenger that conveys interest, aloofness, professionalism—or lack thereof. Head up, back straight (but not rigid) implies an upright character.

Touch (Haptics) 

            The meaning of a simple touch differs between individuals, genders, and cultures. It involves handshake, kiss, slap, hug, massage, hit, kick, etc. Each touch communicates a unique message like fear, disgust, love, encouragement, gratitude, sympathy, anger, pain, violence, etc. 

 

Space (Proxemics) 

            It is also called as proxemics that deals with the use of space in communication. The subordinates maintain some distance (space) with his superior is the example for space communication. 

 

Gestures

 

            Communication takes place through the movement of part of the body such as hand, leg, head is called gestures. Arms crossed over the chest, nail biting, head tilted to one side, hand placed on the cheek are the examples of gestures. OK sign made with the hand, conveys a positive message in English-speaking countries, it’s consider offensive in countries such as Germany, Russia, and Brazil.

 

Eye contact

 

            Since the visual sense is dominant for most people, eye contact is an especially important type of nonverbal communication. The way you look at someone can communicate many things, including interest, affection, hostility, or attraction. Eye contact is also important in maintaining the flow of conversation and for gauging the other person’s interest and response.

Paralinguistics

            Paralinguistics refers to vocal communication that is separate from actual language. This includes factors such as tone of voice, loudness, inflection, and pitch.

Appear ance

            Our choice of color, clothing, hairstyles, and other factors affecting appearance are also considered a means of nonverbal communication. Uniforms, for example, can be used to transmit information about a person. A soldier will don fatigues, a police officer will wear a uniform, and a doctor will wear a white lab coat. 

Artifacts

            Objects and images are also tools that can be used to communicate nonverbally. People often spend a great deal of time developing a particular image and surrounding themselves with objects designed to convey information about the things that are important to them.

13.      Advantage and disadvantages of non verbal communication

Advantages of non-verbal communication:

1.      Complementary: Non-verbal cues complement a verbal message by adding to its meaning.

2.      Easy presentation: Information can be easily presented in non-verbal communication through using visual, audio-visual and silent means of non-verbal communication.

3.      Substituting: Non-verbal messages may substitute for the verbal message especially if it is blocked by noise, interruption, long-distance, etc. for example; gestures-finger to lips to indicate need for quiet, facial expressions- a nod instead of a yes.

4.      Repeat: Used to repeat the verbal message (e.g. point in a direction while stating directions.)

5.      Help to illiterate people: This type of communication use gestures, facial expressions, eye contact, proximity, touching, etc. and without using any spoken or written word.

6.      Help to handicapped people: Non-verbal cues of communication greatly help in handicapped people especially to deaf people. Deaf people exchange messages through the movements of hands, fingers, eyeballs, etc.

7.      Attractive presentation: Non-verbal communication is based on visual, picture, graph, sign, etc. that can be seen very much attractive.

8.      R educing wastage of time: The message of non-verbal communication reached the receiver very fast. It reduces the wastage of valuable time of the communicator.

9.      Quick expression of message: Non-verbal cues of communication like sign and symbol can also communicate some messages very quickly than written or oral messages. 

Disadvantages or limitations of non-verbal communication:

1.      Vague and imprecise: Non-verbal communication is quite vague and imprecise. No dictionary can accurately classify them. Their meaning varies not only by culture and context but by the degree of intention.

2.      Continuous: It is possible to stop talking in verbal communication, but it is generally not possible to stop nonverbal cues.

3.      Multi-channel: while watching someone’s eyes, you may miss something significant in a hand gesture. Everything is happening at once and therefore it may be confusing to try to keep up with everything.

4.      Culture-bound: Gestures seen as positive in one culture may be seen as obscene in another culture.

5.      Long conversations are not possible: In non-verbal communication, long conversation and necessary explanations are not possible.

6.      Difficult to understand: Difficult to understand and requires a lot of repetitions in non-verbal communication.

7.      Not everybody prefers: Everybody does not prefer to communicate through non-verbal communication with others. Sometimes it cannot create an impression upon people or listeners.

8.      Lack of formality: Non-verbal communication does not follow any rules, formality or structure like other communication.

9.      Costly: In some cases, non-verbal communication involves huge costs. For example, neon signs, power point presentations, cinema, etc are very much costly compared to other forms of communication.

10. Distortion of information: Since it uses gestures, facial expressions, eye contact, touch, sign, sound, paralanguage, etc. for communicating with others, there is a great possibility in distortion of information.

14.      Formal communication 

·        It is a verbal or written communication in which the interchange of information is done through the pre-defined channels

·        Example - Labour to supervisor to manager

·        Example - Student to class teacher to HOD to principal

·        It is called official communication

·        In this reliability is more

·        The flow of communication is slow

·        Since it is written communication the evidence is present

·        It is time consuming process

·        Communication is effective due to systematic flow of information

·        Here secrecy is maintained

15.      Informal communication

·        It is verbal communication in which the interchange of information does not follow any channel

·        It is called as grapevine communication

·        Reliability is less

·        Communication is very fast

·        No record of evidence

·        It consume minimum amount of time

·        It is effective because it saves time and money

·        It is difficult to maintain secrecy

16.      Intra-personal communication

·        A kind of communication that occurs within us

·        It involves thoughts, feelings, and the way we look at ourselves

·        It is self centered

·        The same person is act as both sender and receiver

·        The message is made up of thoughts and feelings

·        The channel is the brain, which processes what the person think

·        It has internal feedback 

Advantages of intra-personal communication

 

·        It allows the person to be aware of every aspect of their own personality.

·        A self-aware state makes one secure and increases confidence.

·        It equips a person to manage his daily affairs efficiently using his strengths to the maximum which in turn compensates for his weaknesses.

·        The qualities of self-motivation and self-management will help develop deeper concentration and direct his focus towards the task at hand.

·        Self-awareness allows the person to be independent

·        The person is highly adaptable to his surroundings as the knowledge of his own qualities allows him to confidently and calmly take decisions and change his approach accordingly in response to situational stimuli.

Disadvantages of intra-personal communication

 

·        Since the person prefers working alone, he is perceived as shy or anti-social by others.

·        Since there is absence of a feedback, that is, the conversation is in a one-way flow, it could lead to the development of misconceptions and faulty assumptions.

·        Wrong assumptions made by an individual could lead to incorrect decisions.

·        There is a possibility of an individual categorizing and viewing certain individuals or events with a biased opinion.

·        Over analysis of situations and prolonged thinking about them will lead to the imagination of unrealistic and unnecessary scenarios, and in extreme cases, may even lead to self-doubt.

·        One may be incorrectly perceived as being arrogant. 

17.      Inter personal communication

·        Communication between two persons is called interpersonal or dyadic communication

·        It is used to communicate our ideas, thoughts and feelings to another person

·        It is message sending and receiving by the two persons

·        It includes listening, persuading and non-verbal communication

·        It can also use charts, graph, animation, music, and sound for communication purpose

 

Forms or types of interpersonal communication

 

(a)  Face to face communication – Meeting two persons in a formal or informal way to exchange of view, ideas, and thoughts. Participants are speaker and listener. In face to face communication we can observe the facial expression, and the interest of the listener. Both speaker and the listener have eye contact. Communication is very fast and can get immediate feedback 

(b)  T elephonic conversation – It is interaction between two persons on the telephone. It is the fastest way of communication. We cannot have eye contact and observe facial expression. Since it doesn’t have eye contact the truthfulness of message is not verifiable.   

(c)  Interview – It is the meeting between interviewer and interviewee with a specific purpose. Generally it is a formal way of dyadic communication. It is to get new information about the person which is not available already. 

(d)  Instruction – It is directing others to perform a particular job. In this the language should be polite, plain and direct. The speaker should understand the receivers understanding capacity. 

 

Stages of interpersonal communication 

(a)  Phatic stage – This is the formal stage of communication. It begins with hi, hello, etc. It is the introduction or first meeting between two persons. It can be called as warming up stage. 

(b)  Personal stage – It is the stage of sharing personal details. We can talk about our feelings, job, family, etc 

(c)  Intimate stage – This stage is reserved for friends and relatives. Since it is the stage of closeness all things will be shared between them.

 

Advantages of interpersonal communication

 

·        It is fastest mode of communication

·        Possible to convey message clearly

·        We can observe facial expression and eye contact

·        Possible to get immediate feedback.

·        No chance for misunderstanding since the doubts are clarified during conversation

 

Disadvantages of interpersonal communication 

·        There is no record or evidence of conversation

·        In telephonic conversation we can’t observer facial expression and eye contact

·        Technology may be the reason for the barrier to communication in telephonic conversation

18.      Group communication 

·        It is the communication taken place between the group members.

·        Three or more members (approximately 15) are present in a group

·        Each group has a common goal

·        Group members are working together to achieve the goal

·        Since it is a common goal, each member in a group depending on each other 

·        Group members use verbal, non verbal and text messages to generate meanings and establish relationship.

 

Types of group communication

 

(a)  Primary group – It is a small social group whose members share close, personal relationship. Family and friends group are comes under primary group

 

(b)   Secondary group – It can be small or large in size. It is impersonal. Group in a work place is an example for secondary group.

 

(c)  Learning group – It is an educational approach. It allows students to develop their studies and communication skills

 

(d)  Service group – This group render their service to God and society. Choir, group counseling are examples of service group

 

(e)  Discussion group – It is a face to face interactions in a group. Group members respond, react and adopt to the communication

 

Advantages of group communication 

·        Group members can easily reach the goal

·        It is a coordinated work

·        The work is decentralized to complete the task easily and effectively

·        Each member can contribute many ideas

 

Disadvantages of group communication 

·        There is a chance for miscommunication

·        Ego problem may arise among the group members

19.      Mass communication

·        It is the communication to the larger number of audience at the same time

·        The mass media are television, radio, newspaper, magazine, cinema, etc.

·        The members of mass are heterogeneous (each one different from others)

·        The members of mass communication lack self identity (they don’t know each other)

·        The members of mass are incapable of acting together

·        The sender receiver relationship is impersonal

20.      Organizational communication 

Organizational communication simply refers to communication that takes place in business environments. Because organizational communication includes everything from individual to mass communication

Types of organizational communication. 

(i)    Formal Communication

·        Formal communication is associated with the formal organizational structure of the company. 

·        Communication flows smoothly, accurately and timely through the proper channel

·        Seniority will dictate how communication will flow from one department to another or from specific managers to specific employees.

·        Certain tools and technologies are often used to aid in formal communication.

·        Formal communication can have several forms such as meetings, conferences, telephone calls, company newsletter, performance reviews, etc.

·        The strength of formal communication is that it standardizes communication, ideally benefiting the clarity of each message.

 

(ii) Informal Communication or Grapevine communication

·        Informal communication includes casual, social and personal messages in the organization.

·        Also referred to as the grapevine, informal communication and messages involve person-to-person communication networks of employees that are not officially sanctioned by the organization.

·        This type of communication cannot be prevented.

·        The strength and weakness of informal communication is that it is spontaneous and quick.

·        This can lead to meaningful insights or inaccurate, misinterpreted and distorted information.

·        Managers should try to use grapevine in a way so that the organization can take the highest benefits from it.

 

Types of directional communication that take place in organizations.

·         Downward communication flows from superiors to subordinates. This typically takes the form of orders, instructions and policy directives to people at lower levels in the company. Examples include feedback on job performance and information about policy and procedures.

 

·         Upward communication flows from subordinates to superiors. This is the opposite of downward communication; it originates from people at lower levels and is directed to those who are above them. Examples include suggestion statements, reactions, reports and proposals.

 

·         Horizontal or Lateral communication flows from people who are on the same level of the organization. This type of directional communication enables people to interact with their peers without involving people at other levels in the company. Examples include the communication between subordinates of one boss or between managers.

 

·         Diagonal communication that takes place between employees at different level of the organization. They have no direct reporting relationship with each other. It is also called as crosswise communication which takes place in case of emergency 

·         External communication is the transmission of information between two organizations or company’s external environment. It includes customers, suppliers, investors, shareholders, and society 

    21.      Public communication

·        Public communication happens when individuals and groups engage in dialogue in the public sphere in order to deliver a message to a specific audience. 

·        Public speaking events, newspaper editorials and billboard advertisements are a few forms of public communication

·        Public communication is projection of information or propaganda to the general public for purposes of education or persuasion.

·        Politicians make public speeches to encourage people to vote for them or to promote public opinion for public works, or against other parties, ideas, or platforms.

·        It is the receipt and exchange of messages, ideas and opinions.

·        Means of public communications evolved over time with the development of technology and mediums of communications.

·        People respond and react within public groups, thereby contributing to and shaping public communication. 

22.      Types of communication

Question number  16-21

23.      Functions of mass media 

·        Mass media are involved in the collection, storage, processing and dissemination of information’s

·        It gives access to knowledge

·        It informs, instruct and entertain the people in many ways

·        It informs what happened around us inside and outside the country

·        It can educate the public through news, quiz program and distance education program

·        Mass media keep a watch on people and events

·        Media not only tells us what happened, why it happened and also how it would affect a person in society

·        Mass media provide space and time to advertise product

·        Mass media is a vehicle to transmit cultural norms, values, rules, and habits.

·        Mass communication functions to mobilize people during times of crisis.

24.      SMCR model of communication

Berlo’s SMCR Model of Communication includes four components that describe the communication process. The different components in the model are influenced by various factors.

Sender

            The sender of the message is the source who creates and sends the message to the receiver. The source is the start of the communication process and is the person who encodes the message. Factors that may influence the sender are also applicable to the receiver. Berlo’s SMCR Model of Communication identifies the following factors that affect the source:

·        Communication skills - Communication skills include: reading, listening, speaking etc.

·        Attitude - One’s attitude in relationship to the audience, receiver and subject changes the meaning and consequence of the message.

·        Knowledge - Familiarity with the subject of the message makes communication more effective.

·        Social systems - Values, beliefs, religion and rules influence the way in which the sender communicates the message, alongside location and circumstances.

·        Culture - Cultural differences may result in the message being interpreted differently.

Message

            The message is the package of information or meaning that is sent from sender to receiver. The message can be sent in various forms, such as audio, speech, text, video or other media. The sender of the messages always wants the receiver to interpret the message in a certain way. The source’s intention is therefore translated into a coded message. The receiver should understand the message with reasonable accuracy. The message is influenced by:

·        Content - The content of the message from beginning to end.

·        Elements - Elements are (non)verbal aspects, such as gestures and signs, that may influence the message.

·        Treatment - Treatment refers to the way in which the message is sent, the message’s packaging.

·        Structure - As the word suggests, the structure of the message refers to the way in which it is structured.

·        Code - The code of the message is the form in which the message is sent. This may include text, language, video, gestures, music, etc. 

Channel

            The channel is the medium used to send the message. The medium must be able to be picked up by the sensory system of the receiver and may therefore involve vision, sound, smell, taste or touch. Humans have the following senses:

• Hearing – hears are used to hear audio messages
• Seeing – eyes are used to seeing the visuals and understand the message
• Touching – hanging, shaking
• Smelling – perfume, food
• Tasting – through this channel the taste of the food is conveyed

Mass communication always involves technical tools, such as phones, the Internet and television. In these cases, the transmitted information is assimilated via vision and sound.

Receiver

            The receiver is the person who receives and subsequently decodes the coded message. In a linear communication process, the receiver is always located at the end. In order to make communication as effective and smooth as possible, Berlo’s SMCR Model of Communication assumes the receiver’s thinking pattern must be in accordance with that of the sender. The same factors therefore influence this component in Berlo’s SMCR Model of Communication. After all, the receiver decodes the message him/herself and gives it their own meaning.

25.      Knapp’s relationship model of communication

Coming together

 

Initiation – This very short stage is all about making an impression. So this stage the judging would not be accurate. People will be concerned with making favorable impressions. The physical appearance plays a great role in impression making such as the dress that they wear, the perfume they use and the overall appearance.

 

Example  – If a boy finds a girl attractive and want to make a conversation with her, he will introduce him selves with a formal greeting – how are you? What is your name?

 

Experimentation – In this stage, it’s all about exploring to know each other well. In this stage each person will analyze the other for information or a common interest so that they can decide whether to maintain a relationship among them. Most of the relationships wind up here due to the different interest levels.

 

Example – When the boy sees the girl the next time they will discuss to find out about their common interest and asks questions like- which is your favorite food? Or which is your favorite car?

 

Intensifying – In this stage the relationship intensifies and becomes less formal. People will start revealing their personal information. They find various ways to nurture a relationship in order to strengthen interpersonal development such as gifts, spending more time together, expecting a relationship commitment etc.

 

Example  – The boy asks the girl for a date. During their date they talk about their lives and how the boy got the job and his personal experience and the girl also reveals about her parents, her previous experiences, etc.

 

Integration –  At this stage, the people will start to make their relationship as much closer than before. In personal life people may fall in love or find a close friend. The level of intimacy can progress to a further relationship.

 

Example  – After several months they labeled their relationship as boyfriend and girlfriend.

 

Bonding – In this stage, a person will announce to the world about their relationship. They make their relationship recognized and will honor their commitment legally. The relationship is indefinite and only to be broken through a formal notice, agreements or death etc.

 

Example  – The boy proposes and the girl agrees to marry him.

 

Coming apart

 

When a relationship progresses, there will be misunderstandings and conflicts and the so called ‘indefinite relationship’ might fail to persist.

Differentiating – When people progress in a relationship they sometimes due to other external pressures will start thinking individually rather than with the partner. The relationship will start to fade and the everlasting bond will be broken. The feeling of dislike is often expressed by the partners on their commitment.

 

Example – The boy comes up with idea of quitting the job and to do something he wanted. The girl rejects the idea with some reasoning. So a pressure is created inside the relationship.

 

Circumscribing – After differentiating partners will limit their conversations and will set up boundaries in their communication. Often people will never communicate the topic fearing an argument. They will have their own personal space and activities.

 

Example –  The girl started talking more about the general topics like the food, climate etc. and started avoiding the conversation on quitting the job. The boy does the same.

 

Stagnation – The relationship will decline even more if it reaches the stagnation stage. The communication will be more limited. The only reason the partners don’t separate is due to children or other unavoidable reasons. Mostly the relationships in this stage will not continue or improve.

 

Example – As the girl found that there is not much to talk about in general and will remain silent even though they live in the same house. So there is a serious communication gap between the girl and the boy.

 

Avoidance – At this stage, the partners intentionally avoid any contacts and they will be physically detached. They restrict themselves from any forms of communication to avoid a conversation or an argument.

 

Example – One day the boy packs his bags and walks out of the house. By the time the girl would have completely avoided the boy and will not attempt to stop him.

 

Terminating – The relationship completely terminates. The partners will take different paths and will go on with their lives. The termination is not just a subjective decision as a divorce but it can occur naturally when the people who were living next door move out or when roommates change as the year ends. 

Example – The boy approaches an advocate for a divorce.

26.      Gerbner’s model of communication 

(i) Perceptual Dimension: An ‘E’ is an event happens in the real life and the event content or message is perceived by ‘M’ (Man or a Machine). After Perceives the message from “E” by “M” is known as “E1”. E1 is not same as like ‘E’. Because any man or machine can’t perceives the whole event and they perceives only the part of the event (E1). This is known as “Perceptual Dimension”. These 3 factors are involves between ‘E’ and ‘M’

 

§  Selection

§  Context

§  Availability

 

M (man or machine) cannot perceive the entire content of the event “E”. So M selects the interesting or needed content from the entire event and filtering the others. The context occurs in the event and Availability is based on ‘M’s attitude, mood, culture & personality. 

(ii) Means and Controls dimension: E2 is the event content which is drawn or artified by M. Here M becomes the source of a message about E to send someone else. M creates a statement or signals about the message and Gerbner termed its Form and content as “SE2”. S (Signal or Form) it takes and E2 (Man’s content). Here Content (E2) is structured or formed (S) by ‘M’ and it can communicate in a different ways or based on the structured ways. M has to use channels (or media) over to send the message which he has a greater or lesser degree of control. The question of ‘control’ relates to M’s degree of skill in using communication channels. If using a verbal channel, how good is he using words? If using the Internet, how good is he at using new technology and words? This process can be extended to infinitum by adding on other receivers (M2, M3etc.) who have further perceptions (SE3, SE4 etc.) of the statements about perceived events.

27.      Shannon and Weaver model of communication

1. Sender (Information Source)

 

            The model starts with the sender. They are the person (or object, or thing) who has the information to begin with. The sender starts the process by choosing a message to send. A sender can send a message in multiple different ways: it may be orally (through spoken word), in writing, through body language, music, etc.

 

Example: A person reading a newscast on the nightly news. They will choose what to say and how to say it before the newscast begins.

2. Encoder (Transmitter)

            The encoder is the machine (or person) that converts the idea into signals that can be sent from the sender to the receiver. The Shannon model was designed originally to explain communication through means such as telephone and computers which encode our words using codes like binary digits or radio waves. However, the encoder can also be a person that turns an idea into spoken words, written words, or sign language to communicate an idea to someone.

 

Examples: The encoder might be a telephone, which converts our voice into binary 1s and 0s to be sent down the telephone lines (the channel). Another encode might be a radio station, which converts voice into waves to be sent via radio to someone. 

3. Channel

            The channel of communication is the infrastructure that gets information from the sender and transmitter through to the decoder and receiver. We sometimes also call this the ‘medium’.

 

Examples: A person sending an email is using the world wide web (internet) as a medium. A person talking on a landline phone is using cables and electrical wires as their channel.

4. Noise

            Noise interrupts a message while it’s on the way from the sender to the receiver. It’s named after the idea that ‘noise’ could interrupt our understanding of a message. There are two types of noise: internal and external.

 

Internal noise happens when a sender makes a mistake encoding a message or a receiver makes a mistake decoding the message.

 

External noise happens when something external impedes the message. It may include the crackling of a poorly tuned radio, an interruption in a television broadcast, or a failed internet connection.

5. Decoder

            Decoding is the exact opposite of encoding. Shannon and Weaver made this model in reference to communication that happens through devices like telephones.

 

Examples: Decoders can include computers that turn binary packets of 1s and 0s into pixels on a screen that make words, a telephone that turns signals such as digits or waves back into sounds.

6. Receiver (Destination)

            The receiver is the end-point of Shannon and Weaver’s original linear framework. This is the step where the person finally gets the message, or what’s left of it after accounting for noise.

 

Examples: Examples of a receiver might be: the person on the other end of a telephone, the person reading an email you sent them, an automated payments system online that has received credit card details for payment, etc. 

7. Feedback

            The ‘feedback’ step was not originally proposed by Shannon and Weaver in 1948. Weaver came up with the feedback step in response to criticism of the linear nature of the approach. (‘Linear’ means that the messages are only going one way).

Feedback occurs when the receiver of the message responds to the sender in order to close the communication loop. 

28.      Osgoods & Wilbur Schramm model of communication 

·        This communication model involves circular communication between two people.

·        Each person is both a sender and a receiver.

·        They are therefore able to communicate to one another, rather than only in one direction.

·        It insists that the communication is not only the passing of information from sender to receiver, it should be interpreted to understand the meaning of the message

·        As two-way communication keeps on going in its circular pattern, the semantic noise (misunderstanding the meaning of the message) is ideally reduced

• The message must be encoded properly using right words and in order
• When receiving a message, we need to use our reading skills, listening skills, etc. to decode the message
• Once someone has decoded and interpreted a message, they can then go about encoding their own message to send back to the original sender. The receiver would decode and interpret it. The cycle continues.
• Because both members of the communication have the capacity to encode, decode and interpret, this model views the two members of the conversation as equal participants.
• This model therefore works very well to understand a face-to-face conversation

29.      Newcomb’s ABX model of communication

·        The purpose of this model is to introduce the role of communication in a society and to maintain social equilibrium within the social system

·        The Newcomb’s model works in a triangular form A-B-X system

 

A-   Sender – Teacher

B-    Receiver – Student

X- Matter of concern – Policy / issue

 

·        Teachers introduce a new policy to increase the college timing from 6 to 8 hours

·        If both the teachers and students are satisfied with this policy then the communication maintains its equilibrium status

·        If both are not satisfied with the policy there is a trouble in the social system

·        Either teacher has to convince students or they have to make change in the policy to solve the issue

30.      Aristotle model of communication 

·        While exploring the human nature scientifically, Aristotle developed a linear model of communication for oral communication known as Aristotle’s Model of communication. This is considered as the first model of communication and was proposed before 300 B.C.

·        Aristotle Model is mainly focused on speaker and speech.

·   It can be broadly divided into 5 primary elements: Speaker, Speech, Occasion, Audience and Effect.

·        The Aristotle’s communication model is a speaker centered model as the speaker has the most important role in it and is the only one active.

·        It is the speaker’s role to deliver a speech to the audience. The role of the audience is passive, influenced by the speech. This makes the communication process one way, from speaker to receiver.

·    The speaker must prepare his speech well, so that the audience be persuaded or influenced from the speech.

·  For instance, a politician (speaker) gives a speech to get votes from the civilians (audience) at the time of election (occasion). The audience only vote if they are influenced by the things the politician says in this speech (effect) so the content must be very impressive to influence the mass and the speaker must design the message very carefully.   

31.      Lasswell’s model of communication

The Lasswell Communication Model describes verbal communication and consists of five elements. Who says What, in Which channel, to Whom, with What effect? This model is also called a ‘linear model of communication’, ‘uni-directional process’ or ‘action model, because it describes a one-way process within communication.

Who?

This is the communicator, also called the sender, who formulates and spreads a message - The perfume company wanted to present themselves as a modern company. 

What?

This is the content of the message or the message that the sender spreads - The perfume is available on online shop and is now active on social media.

Which channel?

The channel describes the medium or media that is/are used to convey and spread the message - The medium can consist of several communication tools, mass media and social media such as Twitter and Instagram.

To whom?

This describes the receiver(s), such as a target group or an individual - These are girls and women between 15 and 25 years old who don’t go to perfume shops, but often order things online.

Which effect?

The effect is the result the message leads to – The audience should quickly decide to order perfume via the Internet

32.      Gatekeeping theory

Gate keeping is the process through which information is filtered for dissemination, whether for publication, broadcasting, the Internet, or some other mode of communication. It was originally focused on the mass media with its few-to-many dynamic but now gate keeping theory also addresses face-to-face communication and the many-to-many dynamic inherent in the Internet. From the above picture N is the news sources. Among many news items, only N2 and N3 are informed to public. Rest of the unwanted news items are filtered.

33.      Two step flow theory of communication

·        This communication model tells that the ideas flow from mass media is not directly reaching the audience

·        First it reaches the opinion leader, then to audience

·        An opinion leader is a well known individual or organization that has the ability to influence public opinion

·        Opinion leaders can be politicians, journalists, celebrities, sport stars, etc

·        Opinion leaders pass on to their interpretation of information in addition to actual media content

34.      Multi step flow theory of communication 

·        Multi step flow goes through several channels of interpretation before it reaches the audience

·        In step 1 A and 1 B the information flows simultaneously from mass media to opinion leader, opinion receiver and information receiver

·        Opinion seekers are those who ask information and advice from opinion leader

·        Information receivers are those who neither influence nor are influenced by others

·        They receive processed and interpreted information from opinion leader

·        In step 2 both information and influence are transmitted from the opinion leaders to opinion receiver

·        In step 3 shows the 2 way exchange of information and influence from opinion receiver to opinion leader

·        Here the information moves in multiple directions 

35.      Spiral of silence 

·        Spiral of silence is the term meant to refer to the tendency of people to remain silent when they feel that their views are in opposition to the majority view on subject

·        The silent people feel fear of isolation and opinion might lead to a negative consequences

·        Example – in a company the managing director decides to increase their working hour from 8 to 10. Majority of workers accept this time changes and few employees are not satisfied with this decision. But they cannot express their thought publicly

Because

·        They may feel unsupported by the other employees

·        Fear of isolation like transfer

·        They may save their job

36.      Principles of human communication 

Communication is purposeful

 

·        We communicate for a purpose

·        When we speak or write we are trying to send some messages to others

·        The purposes are to learn, to interact, to help, to influence and to entertain others

 

Communication is transactional

 

·        Sender sends a message and receiver receives it hence communication is transactional

·        Each person in the communication act both as speaker and listener

·        Communication is influenced by many factors such as attitudes, emotions, etc

 

Communication is package of signal

 

·        It means that the communication is taken place such as verbal, non-verbal, written, body language, etc

 

Communication is process of adjustment

 

·        Communication can take place when communicators use the same system of signal such as language, verbal.

·        In reality no two persons use identical signal system so a process of adjustment is needed in all forms of communication

 

Communication is punctuated

 

·        Communication events are continuous transactions

·        There is no clear cut beginning or ending

·        We divide up this continuous circular process into stimuli and responses

 

Communication is ambiguous

 

·        Ambiguous messages are messages with more than one meaning

·        Ambiguity occurs because we use words that can be interpreted differently

 

Communication is inevitable, irreversible and unrepeatable

 

·        Communication is a process that is inevitable, irreversible and unrepeatable

·        Communication messages are always being sent and response

37.      Agenda setting theory

Agenda setting theory - describes the "ability [of the news media] to influence the importance placed on the topics of the public agenda". With agenda setting being a social science theory, it also attempts to make predictions. That is, if a news item is covered frequently and prominently, the audience will regard the issue as more important.

 Three types of agenda-setting 

·        Public agenda setting – when the public determines the agenda for which stories are considered important

·        Media agenda setting – when the media determines the agenda for which stories are considered important

·        Policy agenda setting –when both the public and media agendas influence the decisions of public policy makers

38.      How cultural differences affect non - verbal communication 

Eye contact - In many Asian cultures, avoiding eye contact is seen as a sign of respect. However, those in Latin and North America consider eye contact important for conveying equality among individuals. In Ghana, if a young child looks an adult in the eye, it is considered an act of disobedience.

Touch - In America, using a firm handshake is considered appropriate to greet a stranger or another business professional. In France, however, it is common to kiss someone you greet on both cheeks. Touching children on the head is fine in North America. In the Middle East, the left hand is usually used to handle bodily hygiene. 

Gestures - Individuals in the United States use the “OK” sign to convey that something is acceptable. In Japan, the same hand symbol means “money.” Argentinians, Belgians, the French and the Portuguese all use the symbol to mean “zero” or “nothing.”

Physical Space - The Japanese are less likely to react strongly to an accidental touch by a stranger than Americans. Less personal space is also needed in areas such as Latin America, and, in the context of one-on-one conversations, the Middle East.

Facial Expressions - In Latin America the gesture is often considered a romantic or sexual invitation. The Yoruba people in Nigeria wink at their children if they want them to leave the room. And the Chinese consider the gesture rude.

Posture - Posture can convey power structures, attitudes and levels of civility. In America, standing with hands on the hips may suggest power or pride, but in Argentina, it may suggest anger or a challenge.

Paralanguage - “Paralanguage” refers to factors of speech such as accent, pitch range, volume or articulation. In Britain people use volume to convey anger, while in India, they use it to command attention. Japanese women make a point of raising the pitch of their voices to differentiate themselves from men. 

39.      Interpersonal communication models / human communication models

(a)  Linear model of communication 

·        It is linear or transmission model of communication

·        It is a one way model of communication

·        The communication flows in one direction only

·        It consists of sender, message, encoding, channel, noise, decoding and receiver

·        In this model there is no feedback system

·        We are left to assume that the receiver either successfully receives and understands the message or does not.

·        Example – SMCR (Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver), Lasswell model of communication (Who says What in Which channel to Whom with What effect) 

(b)  Interactive model of communication

 

·        It is interactive or interaction model of communication

·        Each participant alternates roles as sender and receiver in order to keep continuous communication.

·        The interactive model is also less message focused and more interaction focused.

·        The communication is interactive between two persons

·        The sender channels a message to the receiver, and the receiver then becomes the sender and channels a message to original sender

·        This model has feedback indicating that communication is not one way but a two way process

·        Example – In Osgood model of circular communication the sender sends the message to the receiver. The receiver interpret the message and sends the message to the original sender  

(c)  Transactional model of communication

 

·        The transaction model of communication describes communication as a process in which communicators generate social realities within social, relational, and cultural contexts.

·        In this model, we don’t just communicate to exchange messages; we communicate to create relationships, form intercultural alliances, shape our self-concepts, and engage with others in dialogue to create communities.

·        The roles of sender and receiver in the transaction model of communication are referred to as communicators.

·        The Transactional Model becomes more sophisticated yet.

·        This model depicts face-to-face interaction, or “trans-action” as a dynamic and changeable process that is not limited to simple definition. 

·        In the Transactional Model, receiver and sender can play the same roles simultaneously, as sometimes happens, as messages can be sent back and forth simultaneously. 

·        It appears chaotic and ineffective, but sometimes communication is just that. 

·        Throw in some noise, and it would be a wonder whether any message is conveyed successfully in this environment.

40.      Interpersonal communication theories

Uncertainty theory

 

·        It addresses the basic process of how we gain knowledge about other people

·        According to theory people have difficulty with uncertainty

·        People able to predict behavior, so they seek more information about people

·        The strangers go through certain steps and check points in order to reduce uncertainty about each other

·        Higher levels of uncertainty create distance between people

·        By observing the person the person asking others about the person help to reduce uncertainty

Social exchange theory

 

·        This theory explains when and why people reveal certain information about themselves to others

·        This theory states that relationships grow, develop and dissolve as a consequence of an unfolding social exchanging process

·        It argues that the major force in interpersonal relationship is the satisfaction of both people’s self interest

·        It can actually enhance relationship

·        Couple will become intimate by sharing more personal information

 

Social penetration theory

 

·        It describe the development in interpersonal relationship

·        It refers to the reciprocity of behavior between two people

·        The behavior can vary from  verbal, non-verbal exchange, interpersonal perception, etc

·        The behaviors vary based on the different levels of intimacy

 

Onion theory

 

·        Like onion personalities have layers that start from outside

·        When a relationship begins to develop, it is usual for the individuals within the relationship to undergo a process of self-disclosure

·        As people reveal information about themselves their layers begin to peal

 

Cognitive dissonance theory

 

·        This theory explains how humans are consistency seekers and attempt to reduce their dissonance in new situation

·        When individuals gets new information they categorize that information’s based on their pre-existing attitudes, thoughts and beliefs

·        If new information does not go inside with their pre-existing assumptions then dissonance is likely to occur

·        It encourages motivation to achieve consonance

·        Selective exposure is a method for reducing dissonance that only seeking information’s that is consonant (true) with once current belief, thought or actions

·        Selective attention is a method for reducing dissonance by only paying attention to particular information that is consonant with current, belief, thought or action

·        Selective retention – when an individual remembers information’s that is consistent with their current belief

 

Attribution theory

 

·        It explains how individuals go through a process that makes inferences about observed behavior

·        It assumes that we make attributions as a way to clarify behavior

·        The first step is to observe the behavior

·        The second step is to make judgment of interactions and the intention of particular action

·        The last step is making the attributions which will be internal or external

41.      Importance of language in communication

·        Humans communicate with language

·        Language is used to present our ideas, thoughts, feelings and opinions to others

·        Language is used in oral and written communication

·        People around the world use a specific language to communicate

·        It is also used to convey emotions, opinion and ideas

·        Different languages used for communication are English, Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, etc

42.      Importance of body language (Kinesics)

Kinesics or study of body language must be understood by all. Whether it is an interview or a presentation, one must be aware of how to use body language effectively.

 Facial Expressions

 

            It is communication through face. The human face can produce thousands of different expressions such as happy, sadness, anger, angry, etc. Happiness is associated with an upturned mouth and slightly closed eyes; fear with an open mouth and wide-eyed stare. The effect of facial expressions in conversation is instantaneous.

 

Posture 

            The position in which someone holds their body when standing or sitting is posture. The position of our body relative to a chair or another person is another powerful silent messenger that conveys interest, aloofness, professionalism—or lack thereof. Head up, back straight (but not rigid) implies an upright character. 

 

Gestures

 

            Communication takes place through the movement of part of the body such as hand, leg, head is called gestures. Arms crossed over the chest, nail biting, head tilted to one side, hand placed on the cheek are the examples of gestures. However, the meaning of some gestures can be very different across cultures. While the OK sign made with the hand, for example, conveys a positive message in English-speaking countries, it’s consider offensive in countries such as Germany, Russia, and Brazil. So, it’s important to be careful of how you use gestures to avoid misinterpretation.

 

Eye contact

 

            Since the visual sense is dominant for most people, eye contact is an especially important type of nonverbal communication. The way you look at someone can communicate many things, including interest, affection, hostility, or attraction. Eye contact is also important in maintaining the flow of conversation and for gauging the other person’s interest and response.

 

Handshake 

            It is the movement of hands used to communicate information. A firm handshake, given with a warm, dry hand, is a great way to establish trust. A weak, clammy handshake conveys a lack of trustworthiness.

 

Crossing your Arms 

            Crossing your arms could imply that a person is not open to new ideas / opinion especially in case of giving a presentation. However, in a one-on-one interview if the interviewer has his / her arms crossed, the candidate could do the same.

43.      Importance of eye contact in interpersonal communication

·        It is a sign for good listening.

·        It ensures that the receiver is paying attention on the sender’s content.

·        It builds connection between the sender and receiver

·        Sender feel comfortable talking and communicating with the receiver

·        Avoiding eye contact represents that the person is not interested in listening

·        A big part of eye contact is building trust.

·        Eye contact indicates an openness in communication

·        It is a sign of good conversation

·        If people need to get a very important point across, eye contact is the best way to communicate that importance. 

·        Direct eye contact is so powerful that it increases empathy (understanding) and links together emotional states.  

·        We have countless ways of describing eyes including “shifty-eyed,” “kind-eyed,” “bright-eyed,” “glazed over,” and more. Eye contact is also a powerful form of simultaneous communication meaning you don’t need to communicate using words.

·        By looking the persons eye we can understand what they are thinking

·        Eye contact evokes (remind) presence and projects confidence, self-esteem, and boldness while speaking.

44.      Importance of facial expression

·        It is a form of non-verbal communication

·        Eyes, mouth, eyebrows, and forehead are involved in facial expression

·        Smiling is a positive emotion that tells the receiver happy

·        Eyebrows are brought together, forehead is rinkled indicating worry

·        Eye contact is an important sign of confidence and respect

·        Opening one’s eyes or mouth widely, indicating excitement and shock

·        Blinking eyes could signal that we are joking

·        Raising our eyebrows communicate that we are surprised

45.      Types of organizational communication

It is the exchange of information, ideas, and views within the organization

Formal communication

·        It travels through the formal channels officially recognized official position in organization

·        Departmental meeting, conference, telephone calls are some of the forms of communication

 

Informal communication

·        It is also known as grapevine which is free from all sorts of formalities

·        Persons at the high officials use informal communication with the low level worker to get the job done

 

Download communication

·        It is the flow of communication from superior to subordinates

·        In an organizational structure, the higher officials must exercise their power to achieve the desired objectives

 

Upward communication

·        The person from lower level have communicationwith higher level

·        It includes reactions and suggestions from the workers and their grievances

 

Horizontal communication

·        Communication between people’s who are working on the same level of organization

·        It is known as lateral communication which includes communication among managers, supervisors and workers.

 

Verbal communication

·        People in the organization use oral words to communicate

·        It is in the form of lectures, conferences and meetings

 

Written communication

·        The written text are used in organization for communication

It is in the form of rules, orders, schedules, circulars, etc

46.      Formal communication channels

·        Formal communication refers to the communication taking place through official channels in an organization

·        It transmits information such as the goals, policies and procedures of an organization

·        The information flows from a manager to his subordinates and they pass on the information to the next level of staff

·        Example – companies newsletter which gives employees as well as the clients clear idea of a company’s goals and vision

·        It includes the transfer of information with regard to memo, reports, etc

 

Vertical communication

 

·        It involves the flow of information and ideas between the persons of same or different departments holding different positions. Example – worker of one department may communicate with a manager of same or another department

 

Horizontal or lateral communication

 

·        It refers to the flow of communication between employees of the same rank or at the same level in an organization. Example – production manager can contact sales manager about the delivery of goods

 

Upward communication

 

·        It flows upward from the subordinates to superiors in the form of suggestions, opinions, grievances, etc

·        In this the subordinates prefer to involve themselves in the decision making process

 

Downward communication - Communication flows downward from superior to the subordinates in the form of orders, instructions, circulars, etc.

47.      Active audience and passive audience

Active audience

 

·        Media audiences do not just receive information passively but are actively involved

·        They involve in making sense of the message within their personal and social contexts

·        Decoding of media messages are influenced by family background, beliefs, values, culture, education, etc

·        Audiences are actively involved in order to gratify specific need

 

Passive audience

 

·        Audience that merely observe an event rather than actively responding it

·        It suggest that people do not question with what they see in the media

·        Media audiences are manipulated by the creators of media programme

·        People behavior and thinking might be changed by media makers

·        Example – The person who receive message from media and go for voting is active audience and the person who do not go for voting is passive audience 

48.      Narcotic effect / dysfunction

·        Mass media inundates people on a particular issue, they become uninterested to it

·        It is suggested that the vast supply of communication people receive, may elicit only a superficial concern with the problems of society

·        This would result in real societal action being neglected

·        Thus it is termed dysfunction

·        Mass media overwhelming flow of information has caused the people to become passive in their social activism

·        As more time is spent educating oneself on current issues there is a decrease in time available to take organized social action

·        Even though there are increasing number of political messages information and advertisements available through the media, political participation continuous to decline 

49.      Cultivation theory 

The cultivation theory was proposed by George Gerbner. Cultivation analysis focuses on the impact of long term cumulative exposure to television. It is one of the core theories of media effects. According to the theory, people who watch television frequently are more likely to be influenced by the messages from the world of television. The influence goes to such an extent that their world view and perceptions start reflecting what they repeatedly see and hear on television. Television is,therefore, considered to contribute independently to the way people perceive social reality.This constant exposure to the media content cultivates specific values, beliefs, attitudes and desires in people.

Heavy viewer – those who watch 4 or more hours a day are labeled heavy viewers. They give answers that are closer to the way the world is portrayed on television

Light viewer – those who view television less than 2 hours per day are light viewers

Moderate viewer – those who watch television not more than 4 hours not less than 2 hours are moderate viewers

Mean world syndrome – violence related content of mass media make viewers believe that the world is more dangerous than it actually is.

50.      Types of proxemics

Space is related to behavioral norms. The way people use space tells a lot about them. In a professional setting space is used to signal power and status. Space between the persons express control and authority 

The interpersonal distance of man in society is discussed under four headings

 

(a)  Intimate space 

·        Intimate distance is that which is used for very confidential communications.

·        This zone is distance is characterized by 0 to 2 feet of space between two individuals

·        An example of intimate distance is two people hugging, holding hands, or standing side-by-side

·        People in intimate distance share a unique level of comfort with one another.

·        Those who are not comfortable with someone who approaches them in the intimate zone will experience a great deal of social discomfort or awkwardness

·        Communication between friends and family members are comes under intimate

 

(b)  Personal space

 

·        This zone stretches from 18 inches to 4 feet

·        Colleagues, peers are all comes under personal space

·        Instead of whispering sounds, normal talking takes place

·        Though this zone is personal, it is quite a relaxed and casual place

·        It permits spontaneous and unprogrammed communication 

·        Sitting or standing so close brings you closer to the listener and gives the impression of friendliness and warmth

 

(c)  Social space

 

·        Social events takes place in the radius of 4 to 12 feet

·        In this layer relationships are more official. You tend to become more formal

·        People are more cautious about their movements. You should be smart enough to conduct it with less emotion and more planning

·        Here the number of people decides whether it should be sitting-sitting or sitting-standing position

·        It is through experience that you decide which position to take

·        If the number of people is less and you can maintain eye contact, and you could go for in a sitting position

·        If you have to be authoritative and the audience is large, you can go far the sitting-standing position 

 

(d)  Public space

 

·        It is the space that characterizes how close we sit or stand to someone in the public place

·        An impersonal interaction about 12-25 feet away

·        It is maintaining distance from others in parks, roads, etc

51.      Sign language

            ·        Sign languages are an extremely important communication tool for many deaf and hard-of-hearing people. 

·        Sign languages are visual languages that use hand, facial and body movements as a means of communication.

·        There are over 135 different sign languages all around the world including American Sign Language (ASL), Australian Sign Language (Auslan) and British Sign Language (BSL).  

·        Sign languages are used primarily by people who are deaf, they are also used by others, such as people who can hear but can’t speak.

·        Facial expressions in sign languages can express both emotion and grammatical information. For instance, eyebrows can be raised and lowered to change the structure of a sentence from a statement to a question.

·        People who know a sign language are often much better listeners. When using a sign language, a person must engage in constant eye contact with the person who is speaking.

·        Learning a sign language can be a helpful communication tool for some children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

·        Sign languages can be a great way to gossip without anyone else knowing, and passing on confidential information.

·        For a child, the stages of acquiring a sign language are the same as those for spoken language. 

·        Sign languages can be used when the spoken word is physically impossible, such as talking underwater, talking through glass, from a distance, and at a loud music concert.

·        Sign languages can also let you talk to someone without interrupting others with noise. 

52.      Role of human communication in present scenario

            ·        Communication is important for human activities, such as knowledge and the topic of work and comfort.

            ·        In Communication we have a great influence on improvements in our quality of life

·        Language and communication are changing all the time. This is probably because of the fact that people change all the time. The importance of communication skills is undeniable because of this.

·        Communication is affected by technology. New words and terminologies are coined to fit the new discoveries of technology. So a person should have enough knowledge to continue upgrading his or her communication.

·        The importance of communication skills lies in the fact that those skills will help man progress with his language.

·        Communication is affected by culture. In the past, different cultures have been able to use whatever word they want to describe something. But the importance of communication skills help with the social interaction of people.

·        Each of us needs other people in order to live a full life.

·        The biggest importance of communication skills is the fact that it is the way through which our civilization continues to flourish.

·        The act of passing on knowledge from generation to generation is communication.

·        It is through communication that we manage to continue our discoveries.

·        Another importance of communication skills lies in expression. Man’s experiences in life need an outlet. People need some ways to express themselves in order for others to share their experiences.

·        Without communication skills, people would be unable to understand the desires of each other and mutual growth would be impossible.

·        It is through unity and solidarity that we man has reached these heights, and this is made possible through communication.

·        The everyday occurrences of violence resulting from misunderstandings show us just what would happen if communication skills were non-existent.

·        Communication skills are important because we need to be able to relate with the world around us.

53.      Different gazes in communication

·        The gaze is the act of seeing and, how an individual (or a group) perceives other individuals, other groups, or oneself.

·        The gaze is the anxious state of mind that comes with the self-awareness that one can be seen and looked at

·        The gaze can be understood in psychological terms: "to gaze implies more than to look at – it signifies a psychological relationship of power, in which the gazer is superior to the object of the gaze

·        The concept of "male gaze" as a feature of gender power asymmetry in film. Women were objectified in film because heterosexual men were in control of the camera. 

·        The female gaze is a feminist film theoretical term representing the gaze of the female viewer

·        The imperial gaze reflects the assumption that the white western subject is central much as the male gaze assumes the centrality of the male subject

·        Oppositional gaze - Race and Representation, is a type of looking relation that involves the political rebellion and resistance against the repression of a black person's right to look.

·        "Post-colonial gaze" is used to explain the relationship that colonial powers extended to people of colonized countries

·        The tourism image is created through cultural and ideological constructions and advertising agencies that have been male dominated. What is represented by the media assumes a specific type of tourist: white, Western, male, and heterosexual, privileging the gaze of the "master subject" over others.

54.      Constructivism

·        Constructivism seeks to explain how some people are able to communicate more skillfully than others to achieve certain goals.

·        It studies the social, behavioral, cognitive and linguistic aspects that influence message formation and reception

·        It also identifies the skills employed by the communicators and examines how those skills are acquired.

·        Skilled communicators read people to determine their desires, attitudes and goals, and then use that information to create messages to appeal to those individuals. 

Constructivism skills:

Linguistic Competence – Involves the proper use of grammar and syntax, the ability to linguistically comprehend messages received from other speakers. People who have struggle to speak words in correct order, their messages misinterpreted by others.

Sociolinguistic Competence – Refers to a person’s ability to understand the social rules that govern communication in different situations. Aspects of communication that vary from group to group include turn-taking, personal distance, voice volume and tone, use of titles or honorific language, appropriate use and interpretation of verbal expressions, and size and range of gestures.

Rhetorical Competence – Refers to how speakers extract meaning from the messages of others and, in response, create messages that can achieve goals. Successful messages are informative, persuasive and sensitive to others’ needs.

Conversational Management – Refers to how people manage face-to-face interactions by allocating speaking turns, directing conversation topics and adjusting communication goals according to others’ responses.

55.      Mass communication Vs other forms of communication

Mass communication	Other forms of communication
No contact between sender and receiver	Sender and receiver have contact with each other
It reaches mass audience	Communication between limited people
It is in the form of print and electronic media	It may be intra personal, interpersonal, or group communication
No feedback or delayed feedback	Feedback is available
It creates mass effect	It creates desired effect
It is mainly for information and entertainment purpose	It is for information, sharing feelings and emotions, and job oriented.
It is one way communication	It is two way communication
It carries variety of information	It carries limited number of information

 

 56.      Functions of non-verbal communication

·         Nonverbal communication is a process of generating meaning using behavior other than words.

·         It includes vocal elements, which is referred to as paralanguage and includes pitch, volume, and rate, and body language and includes gestures, facial expressions, and eye contact.

·         Nonverbal communication conveys more emotional and affective meaning than does verbal communication.

·         It isn’t governed by rules in the same way that grammar guides verbal communication.

·         Nonverbal communication operates on the following principles: It conveys more meaning, it is more involuntary, it is often more ambiguous, and is more credible.

·         Nonverbal communication regulates conversational flow, as it provides important cues that signal the beginning and end of an interaction.

·         It affects relationships, through which we communicate emotions, establish social bonds, and engage in relational maintenance.

·         Nonverbal communication expresses our identities, through the way we set up our living and working spaces, the clothes we wear, our personal presentation, and the tones in our voices.

57.      Process of persuasion

·        Persuasion is a communication process with a goal of influencing other people.

·        A persuasive message is a communication strategy designed to change a listener's beliefs or behavior or to move a listener to action.

Gaining attention

·        Persuasion cannot begin until audience don’t pay attention

·        Different techniques are used to get attention in different situation

Comprehending

·        Your audience must understand the message before it can be influenced by it

·        The understanding of data being presented is essential to enable the person being persuaded. 

Reducing resistance

·        Present counter arguments in sentences that emphasize readers benefit

·        Receiver will be less resistant if your request is reasonable and you are believable

Retention

·        At this stage of persuasion process the listener must retain the information long enough to act on it.

·        Your message is more likely to be retained if it is interest to the listener

Action

·        The measure of persuasive success is whether the listener is motivated to proceed to a course of action.

·        Offer a gift, an incentive, guarantee satisfaction are some of the motivating action

 

58.      Advantages of speech communication

1.      Easy to understand: If the speaker delivers his or her speech on the basis of the audience level, it becomes easy understanding.

2.      Time saving: Direct speech between the speaker and the listener saves time to communicate information.

3.      Good relation: Speech can help to develop the friendly relation between the speaker and the audiences.

4.      Cost saving: Direct speech saves money, because it does not require any device or writing instruments like pen, paper, computer, telephone etc.

5.      Suitability: It is very suitable to communicate with both illiterate and literate people.

6.      Quick means: Speech is a quick mean of communication since it does not take any formality.

7.      Direct feedback: There is a quick and direct feedback in oral communication.

8.      Mass communication: The speaker can communicate with many people at a time through speech.

59.      Elaborate likelihood model of persuasion

·        Persuasion occurs when readers, listeners or viewers learns a message from what they read, listen or watch.

·        The Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) explains how persuasion message works in changing the attitude of reader or viewer.

·        It proposes that each and every message is undergoing the process of persuasion in two different ways, called Central route and peripheral route.

Central Route

 

·        The process of persuasion through Central route is straight to the point and complete.

·        The central route needs a thoughtful consideration of arguments which contains in the message.

·        It requires more involvement from the part of reader or viewer. The receiver of the message carefully analyze the message and think of it in every possible angle.

·        When the receiver processes the message through the central route, his active participation is vital also his motivation and ability to think.

·        A person who is having problem with understanding the message may not be able to do the central processing.

·        If the receiver is not directly affected by the message he or she will ignore it.

 

Example

 

A woman who is very much interested in platinum jewels will be closely watching the advertisements of platinum jewels. She is fascinated with the new trends and tends to collect them. Here she has the motivation for the subject matter and she care about it. She carefully processes the message and thinks about it. And her husband may not be interested in jewels so he will be totally ignoring the message from advertisements about the jewels. Here the woman processes the message in her central route and not her husband. 

Peripheral Route

 

·        The peripheral route is weak and the involvement of the receiver will be low.

·        The message sent through peripheral route is not analyzed cognitively.

·        Here the receiver of the message is not sure whether to agree with the message or to disagree. The person may not be able to elaborate the message

·        Sometimes people may not be in a position to think about the message carefully so they will look around for the next best option to be persuaded.

 

Example 

Brian, a high school student in a book store to buy a note book for doing his homework. He sees many designs in front cover of the notebook from various companies. He became confused, and then he saw a notebook with his favorite football player’s picture in front cover. Without thinking much about it, he bought that notebook.

 

60.      Humanistic approach of personality

·        Maslow in his hierarchy of needs theory, he proposes that human beings have certain needs in common and that these needs must be met in certain order.

·        Maslow believed that successful fulfillment of each layer of needs was vital in the development of personality. 

Physiological need

·        These refer to basic physical needs, such as drinking when thirsty or eating when hungry.

·        If someone is lacking in more than one need, they’re likely to try to meet these physiological needs first.

·        Example of a physiological need would be the need for adequate sleep.

Safety need

·        Children have a need for safe and predictable environments and typically react with fear or anxiety when these needs are not met.

·        Adults living in developed nations, safety needs can be more apparent in emergency situations (e.g. war and disasters).

·        Purchasing insurance and contributing to a savings account are example for safety need.

Love and Belonging need

·        The next need in the hierarchy involves feeling loved and accepted.

·        This need includes both romantic relationships as well as ties to friends and family members.

·        It also includes our need to feel that we belong to a social group.

Esteem need

·        Our esteem needs involve the desire to feel good about ourselves.

·        It includes two components. The first involves feeling self-confidence and feeling good about oneself. The second involves feeling valued by others; that is, feeling that our achievements and contributions have been recognized by other people.

·        When esteem needs are met, people feel confident and see their contributions and achievements as valuable and important.

Self- Actualization need

·        It refers to feeling fulfilled

·        It might involve helping others; for another person, it might involve achievements in an artistic or creative field.

·        Mother Teresa, Abraham Lincon, Albert Einstein are examples of self actualized individuals

 

61.      Significance of non verbal communication

·        Various non-verbal cues of the speaker like physical movements, facial expression play an important role in expressing the inner meaning of the messages in face-to-face conversation.

·        Sometimes the appearance of the listeners and receivers conveys their attitudes, feelings, and thoughts regarding the messages they have read or heard.

·        Clothing, hairstyle, neatness, jewelry, and cosmetics of people convey impressions regarding their occupation, age, nationality, social or economic level, job status, etc.

·        Non-verbal cues also help to determine the relative status of persons working in an organization. For example, room size, location, furnishings, decorations, lightings, etc. indicate the position of a person in the organization.

·        Non-verbal cues can effectively express many true messages more accurately than those of any other method of communication. For example; the use of red, yellow and green lights and the use of various signs in controlling vehicles on the roads.

·        Non- verbal cues such as hands, fingers and eyeballs are used by the deaf people for communication purpose.

·        Communication with illiterate people through written media is impossible. In such situations, non-verbal methods like pictures, colors, graphs, signs, and symbols are used as the media of communication.

·        Non-verbal cues like sign and symbol communicate messages very quickly than written or oral media. For example; speed breaker, hospital and school zone, railway gate are easily conveyed through signs and symbols.

·        Sometimes quantitative information on any issue may require a lengthy written message. But this quantitative information can be presented easily and precisely through tables, graphs, charts, etc.

62.      Types of human communication

·        Verbal communication

·        Non verbal communication

·        Written communication

·        Visual communication

63.      Rhetoric

·        Rhetoric is the art and science of persuasion.

·        Rhetoric is about strategic choices and approaches to communication whether textually, verbally, or even aurally and visually.

·        When we communicate to different types of audiences about the same topic, we make strategic decisions on what details to include or omit, what types of evidence or support to use, and so on.

·        The three rhetorical appeals, as discussed by Aristotle are ethos, pathos, and logos and these appeals are guided by kairos, which is about timing.

Ethos:

·        Ethos is an appeal to character, especially authority and expertise.

·        Celebrity and other endorsements are often based on ethos.

·        Example - An American Dental Association endorsement of a toothpaste is more powerful than from a non-medical professional.

Pathos:  

·        Pathos means an appeal to emotions, both positive and negative.

·        A rhetor may appeal to emotions that an audience already has about a subject.

·        Political campaigns are excellent examples of pathos appeals. Political ads often play on the fears and hopes of different demographics.

·        It does not need to contain facts or evidence of such actions to be useful and successful because they rely on the fears and worries of the audience.

·        If a rhetor desires to persuade a particular audience, then the rhetor must understand the ruling emotions regarding the topic and the specific audience.

·        Pathos is about the emotional state of the audience, not the rhetor.

Logos:

·        An appeal to logical reason, the clarity, consistency, and soundness of an argument, from the premise and structure to the evidence and support.  

·        A rhetor appeals to logos by making reasonable claims and supporting those claims with evidence, such as statistics, other data, and facts.

·        Audience considers reasonable claims and adequate evidence is influenced by an audience’s values and beliefs.

Kairos:

·        It is the Greek word for time.

·        In rhetoric, kairos refers to the opportune moment for persuading a particular audience about a particular subject.

·        Kairos depends on a strong awareness of rhetorical situation. Kairos is the where, why, and when of persuasion.

      

64.      Public speaking technique to attract audience

1. Stage Presence

·        Confidence comes from choosing a topic you like and researching it well.

·        Friendliness can be conveyed simply by smiling at your audience.

·        Enthusiasm and energy will naturally follow when you enjoy your topic and are well prepared.

2. Voice Control

·        Voice is the most important tool in public speaking

·        It helps to make speakers voice sound fabulous

·        It also reduces feelings of breathlessness caused by speech anxiety.

3. Body Language

• Practice standing with a relaxed upright posture.
• Place hands at sides or gripped in front of the body.
• Facial expression is also important. The speaker should have a relaxed and joyful look on face if delivers an upbeat speech.

4. Delivery

·        When it comes to public speaking, delivery is everything.

·        Even if a speaker has great voice and good body language, his/her message will get lost if the audience can't easily follow what they say.

·        Speak slowly, deliberately and Pause between ideas to give the audience time to receive the message.

·        Carefully articulate and pronounce words. Vary the pitch and volume of speaker voice to add interest. 

5. Audience Relations

·        Good public speakers are in tune with their audience which is more than standing in front of a group and talking.

·        A cknowledge audience right away and begin talking as soon as all eyes are on speaker.

·        Make eye contact and watch for communication from the audience. Smiles and nodding are good.

 65.      Communication is inevitable, irreversible and unrepeatable

Communication is inevitable which means that in a situation where there other people in the scene, even if one doesn't wish to communicate with others, they will nonetheless be in some form of communication with them. Someone ignoring someone else, or refusing to communicate with them is even a way of communication. Communication doesn't have to be necessarily verbal; it can take nonverbal form as well. 

 

Communication is also irreversible. Once a word, phrase, or comment leaves one's mouth, or once that impulsive text message or e-mail is sent, there's no way of erasing that from others' memory. Because of communication being inerasable, one should always be aware of things they communicate to others. For example, during an angry moment, one might say hurtful things that they go on to regret later, and even if an apology is given, the other person will still remember the hurtful words, which has its effect.

 

Last, but not least, communication is unrepeatable. Many judge others through their first impressions of them, and it is usually the quality of communication being unrepeatable that some people get hired and some people don't. Job interviews are a great example of communication being unrepeatable. Although communication is unrepeatable, if possible, it's good not to judge from first impressions

 

66.      Verbal and non - verbal cues

Verbal cues

·        A verbal cue is a prompt that is conveyed in spoken language from one person to another or a group of people

 

a.      Oral communication

b.      Written communication

c.      Mediated communication

·        It contains both verbal and non-verbal communication

·        Most world wide web content consist of typed text, video or both

·        Online interactive media use verbal communication

·        TV broadcast use verbal and non-verbal communication and radio rely on verbal communication 

 

Non-verbal cues

·        Perceptual information communicated in a social exchange by signs

·        Such cues include body language, kinesics, color, etc

·        Write about various non-verbal communication types

 

67.      Ineffective communication

·        Language is an obvious example; if a sender speak in a language the receiver doesn't understand, the communication fails. Writing a message to a person who has difficulties reading is also ineffective communication.

·        Simply expressing ideas, thoughts and emotions does not make communication effective. Communication can only be considered effective when the listener understands the message

·        Using the wrong communication channel or conveying nonverbal communication that contradicts the verbal message are all barriers to effective communication

·        Bad leader may be so bad at communication, unable to answer questions and clarify points which leads to confusion and frustration.

·        Different people from different backgrounds will relay messages in different ways, with varied nonverbal cues which leads to ineffective communication

·        An employee who is demoralized feels unvalued, unappreciated, and even disrespected and disregarded despite their capacities and talents

·        Due to distractions and personal issues, a staff member may communicate the wrong way, and react in a negative fashion.

·        Poor and ineffective communication could lead to employees uncertain (unclear) of their roles and value to the company.

·        If communication in the workplace is poor and ineffective, staff members are less likely inclined to collaborate with each other which leads to poor teamwork. 

68.      Myths about communication

Myth 1: Communication is about talking or writing - Communication is more than just speaking or writing. Some individuals, particularly those who are deaf, rely on visual communication too. 

Myth 2: Communication just happens - Just because you open your mouth and say something or put something in writing does not mean you have conveyed information that will be understood. It is a good idea to get someone else to check that what you want to say (or write) is clear. 

Myth 3: We all use the same language so everyone should understand - It is wonderful that some people want to play linguistic gymnastics with information but ‘keep it simple’ works wonders too. People don’t want to waste time trying to decipher acronyms or work specific jargon. Time is money and life is short, so keep it simple. 

Myth 4: Everyone got the email so they’re in the loop - Don’t ‘assume’ your emails have been received or have been understood. Communication is about checking that everyone has received information and understands it.

Myth 5: There is no time for questions - Questioning in meeting is how people develop critical analysis skills. They are also a good indicator that someone is actively listening because they are trying to make sense of information within their own understanding. So, encourage questions. 

Myth 6: Visual information has limited value - Visuals are  significantly better way of conveying information than text. This is why social media apps like Snapchat and Instagram work – a picture paints a thousand words.  Flow charts, graphs, timelines and maps all help with conveying information. Using colours for key information can also make information clearer. Visuals can help you avoid misunderstanding. So, if information can be conveyed visually, then use visuals instead of text. 

Myth 7: Videos communicate our message - Vlogs, videos on your website or in presentations need to include subtitles. Some of us may well appreciate pleasant tones.