Viscom notes

COMMUNICATIN SKILLS

PART - A

1. Communication

It is the transfer of information form one person to another.
It is the process of sending and receiving messages

2. Sender

It is a person who sends message. Sender gets feedback from receiver.
Sender starts the communication process

3. Perception

The ability to see, hear, smell, taste, touch and become aware of something.
Eg- when we see the object, we perceive the shape and color of the object.

4. Opinion leader

He receives information from mass media and informs the subject to people.
Eg – 4^th umpire in cricket match

5. Dress code

It is a non-verbal communication.
It’s like a sender which tells social status of the person. Eg – poor or rich

6. Voice modulation

It is a verbal communication.
It communicates different feelings such as sad, happy, angry, etc through sound

7. Attitude

It is how people behave.
Tendency to respond positively or negatively towards certain idea or person.
It is the character of a person

8. Empathy

Understanding and entering into another’s feeling.
Expressing happiness in wedding or birthday party

9. Contextual meaning

How the word read can have two different meanings depending upon what words are around it.
Eg – Rose is a flower. Sun ROSE in the east yesterday

10. Authority

It comes in public communication ethos.
An audience is persuaded by the greater person’s authority.
Eg – Educational authority – Principal

11. Channel

It is a medium which carryies information to receiver.
Eg – TV, radio, newspaper, magazine, cinema, poster, painting, etc

12. Intrapersonal communication

Communication within oneself is called intrapersonal communication.
Same person is sender and receiver. Person receives internal feedback.
Eg-Thinking

13. Delayed feedback

It is a feedback that reaches the sender late.
He cannot get the feedback immediately.
Eg – Writing letter to a newspaper organization to point out their mistakes

14. Gestures

It is a non-verbal communication.
It is communication through body movement.
Especially hand or head to express an idea. Eg – saying bye

15. Non-linear model

It is a two way process of communication in which sender receives feedback from receiver.
Eg – Wilbur schramm model

16. Gate keeping

It is the process through which information is filtered for dissemination whether for publication, broadcasting, internet or other mode of communication.

17. Interpersonal communication

Communication between two people is called as interpersonal communication.
It is also called as dyadic communication. Here we can get immediate feedback

18. Two step flow

Ideas or information flow from mass media to opinion leader and then to a public.
Eg – Parliamentary budget – Opinion leader – Public

19. Osgood model

It is circular model of interpersonal communication.
Each person act as both sender and receiver.

20. Transactional analysis (TA)

It is the understanding the interactions of people.
This interpersonal communication takes place in child, adult or parent ego state

21. Leadership

The ability to get work done and through others while at the same time winning their confidence, respect, co-operation.
Each team or group has a leader

22. Rhetoric model

It focuses on public speaking – speaker – speech – occasion - audience – effect.
Speaker is Alexander, his speech about invasion, in the occasion of war field, to his soldiers (audience), to defeat Persia (effect).

23. Interpretation

Understanding the meaning of something is called interpretation.
Eg – Understanding the meaning of road signal.
That is red-stop, yellow – wait, green – go.

24. Political communication

Communication about political.
The politician communicate to public.
The information is prepared, spread and create some effect through media

25. Creative

Involving the use of imagination to create something new.
Eg – Designer creates creative logo for an organization

26. Imagination

Ability to form new images in the mind that are not perceived through seeing, hearing, touching, tasting, feeling.
Eg – Imagination used for story development.

27. Index

A thought or suggestion of an action is called index.
Eg – Idea for attending an interview is an example for index

28. Media vehicle

Newspaper, magazine, radio, TV are called media vehicles.
It is used to deliver advertisement messages to the audience.
It carries sports, political, advertisement and various news information’s

29. Space or Proxemics

It is a non-verbal communication.
It is the distance between sender and receiver.
Eg – Distance between Principal and students

30. Posture

It is a non-verbal communication.
The person how he stands or sit communicates his attitudes

31. Haptics

It is a touch communication and non-verbal communication.
Eg – Touching the shoulder of a friend gives comfort feeling

32. Eye gaze

Movement of eye that is looking at one place or motion of an eye relative to head.
Eg – Turn our head left or right, our eyes also move accordingly

33. Mediated communication

Communication carried out by the use of computer.
Eg – Internet, e-mail

34. Kinesics

It is a non-verbal communication.
Interpretation of body motion communication such as facial expression, gestures are kinesics.

35. Mass communication

Communication to a large number of audience with the help of mass media such as radio, TV, newspaper, etc is called mass communication
It is used to spread the message to the mass people

36. Propaganda

It is a form of biased communication aimed at promoting or demoting certain views.
Eg – Political communication.

37. Active audience theory

Media audiences do not just receive information passively. But are actively involved.
People actively involved in voting for election after realizing their rights through media.

38. Social network

The use of websites to interact with others is called social network.
Eg – facebook, twitter.

39. Blog

A regularly updated website that is written conversational style.
Eg – Photography blog, personal blog, etc

40. Public communication

Communication to the public is called public communication.
Public communication happens when individuals and groups engage in dialogue in the public sphere in order to deliver a message to a specific audience.
Public speaking events, newspaper editorials, and billboard advertisements are few forms of public communication

41. Audience

Group of people who watch TV, reading newspaper, listening to radio is called audience.
Two types of audiences are active and passive audience and the programs are aimed at them

42. Denotation

Direct meaning of a particular word is called denotation.
Example - Rose is a flower, snake is a reptile

43. Connotation

Indirect meaning of a particular word is called connotation.
Eg – Rose is symbol of love, snake - fear.

44. Public opinion

Public opinion is an expression of general public thoughts. It consists of the desires, wants and thinking of the majority of the people.
It is the collective opinion of the people of a society or state on an issue
Eg – Public opinion about petrol price high.

45. Selective exposure

It is the tendency of an individual to favor information which reinforces their pre-existing views while avoiding contradictory information
These selections are made based on their perspectives, beliefs, attitudes and decisions.

46. Selective perception

It is the tendency not to notice and more quickly forget stimuli that cause emotional discomfort and contradict our prior beliefs.
For example – a teacher may have a favorite student because they are biased by in-group favoritism.

47. Selective retention

People more accurately remember messages that are closer to their interest, values and beliefs.
Selecting what to keep in the memory, narrowing the information flow

48. Uses and gratification theory

Understanding why people actively choose specific media to satisfy their needs.
It focuses on what do people do with media. It discusses how media allow one to enhance knowledge, relaxation, etc.
It assumes that the audience has power over their media consumption.

49. Noise

The sound which is disturbing the communication processes is noise.
Because of noise the receiver is not able to receive message properly.

50. Territory

It is a non – verbal communication.
How people use space to communication

51. Locomotion

The movements that animals use to move from one place to another.
Eg – Monkeys jump to move its place

52. Para language

Paralanguage is nonverbal communication such as tone, pitch or manner of speaking
It allows words to be interpreted differently depending on the message we want to convey

53. Decision making

Group decisions primarily result from the opinions that group members have about an issue or course of action.
When one member opposes the idea of another member, for example, then the group must reconcile the difference in some way
The decision making process is a norm that may be decided by a group leader or by the group members as a whole.

54. Publication

To publish is to make content available to the general public.
It is usually applied to text, images, or other audio-visual content, including paper.
The word publication means the act of publishing, and also refers to any printed copies

55. NVC

Nonviolent Communication (abbreviated NVC) is an approach to nonviolent living
NVC contains four basic components: Observations, Feelings, Needs/Values, and Requests
The basics of Nonviolent Communication involve expressing ourselves with clarity, compassion, self-responsibility, and empathy.

56. Lateral thinking

Lateral thinking is the mental process of generating creative ideas and solving problems.
It is the ability to think creatively or “outside the box

57. Communication model

Communication models are systematic representations of the process which helps in understanding how communication works can be done.
Models show the process in symbols. They form general perspectives on communication by breaking communication from complex to simple and keeps the components in order.

58. Team work

Teamwork is the collaborative effort of a group to achieve a common goal or to complete a task in the most effective and efficient way.
This concept is seen within the greater framework of a team, which is a group of interdependent individuals who work together towards a common goal.

59. Power point

PowerPoint is a computer program that allows you to create and show slides to support a presentation.
We can combine text, graphics and multi-media content to create professional presentations.

60. Feed back

It is respond to the communicated message.
The communication process is completed once the feedback is reached to the sender

61. Group communication

Group communication is a mode of communication in an organization, between employers and employees, and employees in teams/groups.
Families, friendship circles, work teams, committees, and sports teams are all examples of groups

62. Spiral of silence

The spiral of silence theory is a political science and mass communication theory proposed by the German political scientist Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann.
It states that a social group or society might isolate or exclude members due to the members' (opposite) opinions.
This stipulates that individuals have a fear of isolation.

63. Communication barriers

It is defined as anything that prevents effective exchange of information, thought and ideas.
Physical, emotional, cultural, language, gender are some of the examples of barriers to effective communication

64. Ideation

Ideation is the creative process of generating, developing, and communicating new ideas
Ideation comprises all stages of a thought cycle, from innovation, to development, to actualization.
Ideas can be generated through sessions such as Sketching, Brainstorming, Brainwriting, Worst Possible Idea, and a wealth of other ideation techniques

65. David Berlo

David Kenneth Berlo was an American communications theorist.
Berlo's SMCR Model of Communication represents the process of communication in its simplest form.
His model SMCR stands for Sender, Message, Channel, and Receiver.

66. Semantics

Semantics is the linguistic and philosophical study of meaning in language, programming languages, formal logics, and semiotics.
It is concerned with the relationship between signifiers—like words, phrases, signs, and symbols—and what they stand for in reality, their denotation.

67. Decoding

The decoding of a message is how an audience member is able to understand, and interpret the message.
It is a process of interpretation and translation of coded information into a comprehensible form.
Effective communication is accomplished only when the message is received and understood in the intended way.

68. Message

A message is defined as information conveyed by words (in speech or writing), and/or other signs and symbols.
A message (verbal or nonverbal, or both) is the content of the communication process. The sender conveys the message to a receiver.

69. Cool media

Cool media generally uses low-definition media that engages several senses
The user must be familiar with genre conventions in order to fully understand the medium. Examples: TV, phone conversations, comic books.

70. Hot media

Hot media is that which engages one sense completely.
Examples of hot media include radio and film because they engage one sense of the user to an extent

71. Media Convergence

Media convergence refers to the merging of previously distinct media technologies and platforms through digitization and computer networking.
For example, magazines, radio programs, TV shows, and movies, now are available on the Internet through laptops, iPads, and smartphones.

72. Social scientific theory

The social science approach is based on the assumptions that human behavior is predictable and that there is a describable external reality.
This approach, also called the functionalist approach, is based on research in the fields of sociology and psychology.

73. Third person effect

The third-person effect hypothesis predicts that people tend to perceive that mass media messages have a greater effect on others than on themselves, based on personal biases.
The third-person effect manifests itself through an individual's overestimation of the effect of a mass communicated message on the generalized other, or an underestimation of the effect of a mass communicated message on themselves.

74. Totalitarian media theory

Totalitarianism is a form of government that attempts to assert total control over the lives of its citizens.
It is characterized by strong central rule that attempts to control and direct all aspects of individual life through coercion and repression.
It does not permit individual freedom.

75. Civic journalism

Civic journalism (also known as public journalism) is the idea of integrating journalism into the democratic process.
The media not only informs the public, but it also works towards engaging citizens and creating public debate.

76. Paradigm shift

A paradigm shift is a major change in the concepts and practices of how something works or is accomplished.
It went from face-to-face or phone calls to primarily instant messaging.

77. Persuasive techniques

Persuasion is a literary technique that writers use to present their ideas through reason and logic, in order to influence the audience.
Advertisements use persuasive technique to attract the audience to buy their product

78. Cultural studies

Cultural studies is a field of theoretically, politically, and empirically engaged cultural analysis that concentrates upon the political dynamics of contemporary culture, its historical foundations, defining traits, conflicts, and contingencies
It helps us to understand ourselves and those around us by exploring a wide range of institutions, media, concepts and formations such as television, multiculturalism, and cultural heritage.

79. Face to face communication

In communication when the communicator transmits his message in person to the receiver verbally and even non-verbally.
It provides a feel of friendliness which, in turn, boosts the success of your relationships, whether they are personal or business relationships.

80. Encoding

The encoding of a message is the production of the message.
The sender encodes the message and sends it to the receiver in the form of text, image, sound, or video.

81. Semiotics

Semiotics is the study of sign process (semiosis), which is any form of activity, conduct, or any process that involves signs, including the production of meaning.
A sign is anything that communicates a meaning. Signs can communicate through any of the senses, visual, auditory, tactile, etc.

82. Target audience

A target audience is the intended audience or readership of a publication, advertisement, or other message.
In marketing and advertising, it is a particular group of consumers within the predetermined target market, identified as the targets or recipients for a particular advertisement or message

83. Semantic barrier

It refers to the misunderstanding between the sender and receiver arising due to the different meanings of words, & symbols used in the communication
The meaning of words, signs and symbols might be different from one person to another and the same word might have hundreds of meanings.

84. Body language

Body language is a type of nonverbal communication that relies on body movements (such as gestures, posture, and facial expressions) to convey messages.
Body language may be used consciously or unconsciously.
It may accompany a verbal message or serve as a substitute for speech.

85. Motivation

Motivation is the word derived from the word 'motive' which means needs, desires, wants or drives within the individuals.
It is the process of stimulating people to actions to accomplish the goals.
In the work goal context the psychological factors stimulating the people's behaviour can be - desire for money.

86. Saturation

"Saturation level" is used to refer to the point at which a situation cannot handle any further "load" or "stress."
That is, the situation is in danger of breaking down if problems increase beyond that level.

87. SMCR

Berlo's SMCR Model of Communication represents the process of communication in its simplest form.
The acronym SMCR stands for Sender, Message, Channel, and Receiver.
Berlo's SMCR Model of Communication describes the different components that form the basic process of communication.

88. Upward communication

It is the communication where information or messages flows from the bottom of the organizational structure to the top of the organizational structure.
Information flows up the hierarch from subordinates to superiors.
Information’s are in the form of suggestions, request.

89. Downward communication

It is the communication where information or messages flows from the top of the organizational structure to the bottom of the organizational structure.
Information flows down the hierarch from superiors to subordinates.
Information’s are in the form of orders, instructions

PART - B & C

1. Elements of communication / Process of communication

Sender - He is the person who sends his ideas to another person. For example, if a manager wants to inform his subordinates about the introduction of a new product, he is the sender.

Message - The idea, feeling, suggestion, guidelines, orders or any content which is intended to be communicated is message. For example, message is the introduction of new product.

Encoding - It is the process of converting the idea, thinking or any other component of message into symbols, words, actions, diagram etc. For example, message is connected in words and actions.

Media (Channel) - It is the medium, passage or route through which encoded message is passed by the sender to the receiver. There can be various forms of media-face to face communication, letters, radio, television, e-mail etc. For example manager inform about the introduction of a new product in a meeting through presentation.

Decoding - It means translating the encoded message into language understandable by the receiver. That means the symbols, words, actions, etc are understand by the receiver as message.

Receiver - He is the person to whom the message has been sent. For example, subordinates are receivers.

Feedback - It is the response by the receiver. It marks the completion of the communication process.

Noise - It is the hindrance in the process of communication. It can take place at any step in the entire process. It reduces the accuracy of communication e.g. 1) Disturbance in the telephone lines, 2) An inattentive receiver 3) Improper Decoding of Message etc.

2. Characteristics of communication

It involves two persons, the sender and the receiver
In it message is a must
It is oral, written or gestural
It is a two way process
Its primary purpose is to motivate a response
It is formal or informal
It flows up and down and also from side to side

3. Importance of communication

Communication facilitates the spread of knowledge and forms relationships between people.
Communication is the foundation of all human relationship
Communicating helps people to express their ideas and feelings, and it, at the same time, helps us to understand emotion and thoughts of the others
It is very important that we interact with our surroundings and people living in the surroundings
To educate someone, we need to communicate the ideas in the syllabus or the study material to the student.
Only through proper channels of communication can people be updated with current affairs and important events across the globe.
Entertainment, today, is mostly based on the channels of mass communication, like films and television.
People who do not communicate tend to get isolated, which thereby leads to many problems
We should learn how to communicate effectively to make our lives better.

4. Importance of eye contact in interpersonal communication

It is a sign for good listening.
It ensures that the receiver is paying attention on the sender’s content.
It builds connection between the sender and receiver
Sender feel comfortable talking and communicating with the receiver
Avoiding eye contact represents that the person is not interested in listening
A big part of eye contact is building trust.
Eye contact indicates an openness in communication
It is a sign of good conversation
If people need to get a very important point across, eye contact is the best way to communicate that importance.
Direct eye contact is so powerful that it increases empathy (understanding) and links together emotional states.
We have countless ways of describing eyes including “shifty-eyed,” “kind-eyed,” “bright-eyed,” “glazed over,” and more.
Eye contact is also a powerful form of simultaneous communication meaning you don’t need to communicate using words.
By looking the persons eye we can understand what they are thinking
Eye contact evokes (remind) presence and projects confidence, self-esteem, and boldness while speaking.

5. Intra-personal communication

A kind of communication that occurs within us
It involves thoughts, feelings, and the way we look at ourselves
It is self centered
The same person is act as both sender and receiver
The message is made up of thoughts and feelings
The channel is the brain, which processes what the person think
It has internal feedback

Advantages of intrapersonal communication

It allows the person to be aware of every aspect of their own personality.
A self-aware state makes one secure and increases confidence.
It equips a person to manage his daily affairs efficiently using his strengths to the maximum which in turn compensates for his weaknesses.
The qualities of self-motivation and self-management will help develop deeper concentration and direct his focus towards the task at hand.
Self-awareness allows the person to be independent
The person is highly adaptable to his surroundings as the knowledge of his own qualities allows him to confidently and calmly take decisions and change his approach accordingly in response to situational stimuli.

Disadvantages of intrapersonal communication

Since the person prefers working alone, he is perceived as shy or anti-social by others.
Since there is absence of a feedback, that is, the conversation is in a one-way flow, it could lead to the development of misconceptions and faulty assumptions.
Wrong assumptions made by an individual could lead to incorrect choices or decisions.
There is a possibility of an individual categorizing and viewing certain individuals or events with a biased opinion.
Over analysis of situations and prolonged thinking about them will lead to the imagination of unrealistic and unnecessary scenarios, and in extreme cases, may even lead to self-doubt.
One may be incorrectly perceived as being arrogant.

6. Inter-personal communication or Dyadic communication

Communication between two persons is called interpersonal or dyadic communication
It is used to communicate our ideas, thoughts and feelings to another person
It is message sending and receiving by the two persons
It includes listening, persuading and non-verbal communication
It can also use charts, graph, animation, music, and sound for communication purpose

Forms or types of interpersonal communication

(a) Face to face communication – Meeting two persons in a formal or informal way to exchange of view, ideas, and thoughts. Participants are speaker and listener. In face to face communication we can observe the facial expression, and the interest of the listener. Both speaker and the listener have eye contact. Communication is very fast and can get immediate feedback

(b) Telephonic conversation – It is interaction between two persons on the telephone. It is the fastest way of communication. We cannot have eye contact and observe facial expression. Since it doesn’t have eye contact the truthfulness of message is not verifiable.

(c) Interview – It is the meeting between interviewer and interviewee with a specific purpose. Generally it is a formal way of dyadic communication. It is to get new information about the person which is not available already.

(d) Instruction – It is directing others to perform a particular job. In this the language should be polite, plain and direct. The speaker should understand the receivers understanding capacity.

Stages of interpersonal communication

(a) Phatic stage – This is the formal stage of communication. It begins with hi, hello, etc. It is the introduction or first meeting between two persons. It can be called as warming up stage.

(b) Personal stage – It is the stage of sharing personal details. We can talk about our feelings, job, family, etc

(c) Intimate stage – This stage is reserved for friends and relatives. Since it is the stage of closeness all things will be shared between them.

Advantages of interpersonal communication

It is fastest mode of communication
Possible to convey message clearly
We can observe facial expression and eye contact
Possible to get immediate feedback.
No chance for misunderstanding since the doubts are clarified while conversation itself

Disadvantages of interpersonal communication

There is no record or evidence of conversation
In telephonic conversation we can’t observer facial expression and eye contact
Technology may be the reason for the barrier to communication in telephonic conversation

7. Group communication

It is the communication taken place between the group members.
Three or more members (approximately 15) are present in a group
Each group has a common goal
Group members are working together to achieve the goal
Since it is a common goal, each member in a group depending on each other
Group members use verbal, non verbal and text messages to generate meanings and establish relationship.

Types of group communication

(a) Primary group – It is a small social group whose members share close, personal relationship. Family and friends group are comes under primary group

(b) Secondary group – It has opposite characteristic of primary group. It can be small or large in size. It is impersonal. Group in a work place is an example for secondary group.

(d) Service group – This group render their service to God and society. Choir, group counseling are examples of service group

(e) Discussion group – It is a face to face interactions in a group. Group members respond, react and adopt to the communication

Advantages of group communication

Group members can easily reach the goal
It is a coordinated work
The work is decentralized to complete the task easily and effectively
Each member can contribute many ideas

Disadvantages of group communication

There is a chance for miscommunication
Ego problem may arise among the group members

8. Mass Communication

It is the communication to the larger number of audience at the same time
The mass media are television, radio, newspaper, magazine, cinema, etc.
The members of mass are heterogeneous (each one different from others)
The members of mass communication lack self identity (they don’t know each other)
The members of mass are incapable of acting together
The sender receiver relationship is impersonal

Functions of mass media

Mass media are involved in the collection, storage, processing and dissemination of information’s
It gives access to knowledge
It informs, instruct and entertain the people in many ways
It informs what happened around us inside and outside the country
It can educate the public through news, quiz program and distance education program
Mass media keep a watch on people and events
Media not only tells us what happened, why it happened and also how it would affect a person in society
Mass media provide space and time to advertise product
Mass media is a vehicle to transmit cultural norms, values, rules, and habits.
Mass communication functions to mobilize people during times of crisis.

9. Organizational communication

Organizational communication simply refers to communication that takes place in business environments. Because organizational communication includes everything from individual to mass communication

Types of organizational communication.

(i) Formal Communication

Formal communication is associated with the formal organizational structure of the company.
Communication flows smoothly, accurately and timely through the proper channel
Seniority will dictate how communication will flow from one department to another or from specific managers to specific employees.
Certain tools and technologies are often used to aid in formal communication.
Formal communication can have several forms such as meetings, conferences, telephone calls, company newsletter, performance reviews, etc.
The strength of formal communication is that it standardizes communication, ideally benefiting the clarity of each message.

(ii) Informal Communication or Grapevine communication

Informal communication includes casual, social and personal messages in the organization.
Also referred to as the grapevine, informal communication and messages involve person-to-person communication networks of employees that are not officially sanctioned by the organization.
This type of communication cannot be prevented.
The strength and weakness of informal communication is that it is spontaneous and quick.
This can lead to meaningful insights or inaccurate, misinterpreted and distorted information.
Managers should try to use grapevine in a way so that the organization can take the highest benefits from it.

Types of directional communication that take place in organizations.

Downward communication flows from superiors to subordinates. This typically takes the form of orders, instructions and policy directives to people at lower levels in the company. Examples include feedback on job performance and information about policy and procedures.

Upward communication flows from subordinates to superiors. This is the opposite of downward communication; it originates from people at lower levels and is directed to those who are above them. Examples include suggestion statements, reactions, reports and proposals.

Horizontal or Lateral communication flows from people who are on the same level of the organization. This type of directional communication enables people to interact with their peers without involving people at other levels in the company. Examples include the communication between subordinates of one boss or between managers.

Diagonal communication that takes place between employees at different level of the organization. They have no direct reporting relationship with each other. It is also called as crosswise communication which takes place in case of emergency

External communication is the transmission of information between two organizations or company’s external environment. It includes customers, suppliers, investors, shareholders, and society

10. Public communication

Public communication happens when individuals and groups engage in dialogue in the public sphere in order to deliver a message to a specific audience.
Public speaking events, newspaper editorials and billboard advertisements are a few forms of public communication
Public communication is projection of information or propaganda to the general public for purposes of education or persuasion.
Politicians make public speeches to encourage people to vote for them or to promote public opinion for public works, or against other parties, ideas, or platforms.
It is the receipt and exchange of messages, ideas and opinions.
Means of public communications evolved over time with the development of technology and mediums of communications.
People respond and react within public groups, thereby contributing to and shaping public communication.

11. Inter-personal communication models

(a). Linear model of communication

Public communication happens when individuals and groups engage in dialogue in the public sphere in order to deliver a message to a specific audience.
Public speaking events, newspaper editorials and billboard advertisements are a few forms of public communication
Public communication is projection of information or propaganda to the general public for purposes of education or persuasion.
Politicians make public speeches to encourage people to vote for them or to promote public opinion for public works, or against other parties, ideas, or platforms.
It is the receipt and exchange of messages, ideas and opinions.
Means of public communications evolved over time with the development of technology and mediums of communications.
People respond and react within public groups, thereby contributing to and shaping public communication.

(b). Interactive model of communication

It is interactive or interaction model of communication
Each participant alternates roles as sender and receiver in order to keep continuous communication.
The interactive model is also less message focused and more interaction focused.
The communication is interactive between two persons
The sender channels a message to the receiver, and the receiver then becomes the sender and channels a message to original sender
This model has feedback indicating that communication is not one way but a two way process
Example – In Osgood model of circular communication the sender sends the message to the receiver. The receiver interpret the message and sends the message to the original sender

(c). Transactional model of communication

The transaction model of communication describes communication as a process in which communicators generate social realities within social, relational, and cultural contexts.
In this model, we don’t just communicate to exchange messages; we communicate to create relationships, form intercultural alliances, shape our self-concepts, and engage with others in dialogue to create communities.
The roles of sender and receiver in the transaction model of communication are referred to as communicators.
The Transactional Model becomes more sophisticated yet.
This model depicts face-to-face interaction, or “trans-action” as a dynamic and changeable process that is not limited to simple definition.
In the Transactional Model, receiver and sender can play the same roles simultaneously, as sometimes happens, as messages can be sent back and forth simultaneously.
It appears chaotic and ineffective, but sometimes communication is just that.
Throw in some noise, and it would be a wonder whether any message is conveyed successfully in this environment.

12. Personality

Personality can be defined as the combination of characteristics or qualities that form an individual’s distinctive character.
It derives from Latin (persona) meaning “mask” or “role,” which suggests that an individual’s personality is the outward appearance or role they adopt in life.
External personality – These are traits (distinguishing quality or characteristic) that you can see and use to describe what a character looks like
Internal personality – These are traits that describe the way a character acts. Example -alert, ambitious, lazy, jealous, smart, lucky, etc
Personality assessment is designed to help a person to understand their real qualities and to develop their personality in ways that will enhance well-being.
So personality is simply a way of describing the way people learn and adapt.
Personality is the self and its way of adapting to internal and external influences.
In other words, it involves adaptation to both a person’s internal environment (e.g., feelings and motivations related to fears, desires, hopes, and aspirations) and their external environment (e.g., family and social relations, job conditions, exposure to crime and violence, climate change, etc).

13. Forms of communication - Elaborate the following

Intra-personal communication
Inter-personal communication
Group communication
Mass communication
Public communication

14. Types of communication

(a) Verbal communication

Verbal communication can also be called as Oral communication. In very simple terms, any communication that happens orally between people is known as verbal communication. The objective of such communications is to ensure that people understand whatever you want to convey. Because of its very nature, verbal communications is more quick and precise then email communication.

(b) Non-verbal communication

Nonverbal communication refers to gestures, facial expressions, tone of voice, eye contact, body language, posture, and other ways people can communicate without using language. It is the communication not using speech. When you’re interviewing for a job or participating in a meeting, your nonverbal communication is almost as important as your verbal responses. Crossed arms can seem defensive. Poor posture may appear unprofessional. A downward gaze or avoiding eye contact can detract from you being seen as confident.

A ‘Written Communication’ means the sending of messages, orders or instructions in writing through letters, circulars, manuals, reports, telegrams, office memos, bulletins, etc. It is a formal method of communication and is less flexible. A written document preserved properly becomes a permanent record for future reference. It can also be used as legal evidence. It is time-consuming, costly and unsuitable for confidential and emergent communication. Written communication, to be effective, should be clear, complete, concise, correct, and courteous.

Advantages of written communication

It is suitable for long distance communication and repetitive standing orders.
It creates permanent record of evidence. It can be used for future reference.
It gives the receiver sufficient time to think, act and react.
It can be used as legal document.
It can be sent to many persons at a time.
It is suitable for sending statistical data, chart, diagram, pictures, etc.
Order, allocation of work, job distribution, etc. in written form reduce ambiguity and help in fixation of responsibility.
Uniformity in work procedure can be maintained through written communication.
A good written communication can create goodwill and promote business.

Disadvantages of written communication

It is time-consuming. Composing a message in writing takes much time. Feedback process also is not instant.
It is expensive not so much due to postal charges but in terms of so many people spending so much of their time.
It cannot maintain strict secrecy which would have been possible in oral communication.
Written communication has no scope for immediate clarification if not understood properly.
Being written in nature it is less flexible and cannot be changed easily.
It is not effective in the case of emergency.

(d) Formal and informal communication

Formal communication

There are two types of communication when considering the formality of the communication. One is the formal and official type of communication which can be emails, letterheads, memos, reports and other such kinds of written material. These are considered as documentary evidence and certain formality is associated with them. You cannot submit such formal documents and later deny them.

Advantages

When you want to finalize policy and want to decide a course to adopt, then formal communication is more effective
Formal communication can help in establishing procedures and ensuring that the steps are followed.
Any promises or any official plans need to be formally documented so that they can be referred to later.

Informal communication

Informal communication is one where there is nothing official about the communication that is happening. It can be known as Grapevine communication. There is no specific channel of informal communication because there is Social media, WhatsApp, SMS which are all vehicles of informal communication which can be used by people.

Advantages

Informal communication helps the “Open door policy” and makes people more confident and forthcoming with their ideas and creativity.
Informal communication does not incite fear into peoples mind
Informal talks encourage people to share their problems.

(e) Visual communication

Visual communication is the practice of graphically representing information to efficiently, effectively create meaning. There are many types of content in the realm of visual communication, with examples including infographics, interactive content, motion graphics, and more. The possibilities are endless. But no matter the medium, all incorporate at least some of the following elements: interactivity, iconography, illustration, supporting text, graphs, data visualization, and animation. Visual communication can be used include conferences and trade shows, websites, social media posts, office presentations and meetings, and so much more.

15. Importance of communication in an organization

Acts as Basis of Coordination - Communication helps in coordinating the activities of various departments and persons in an organization by providing complete information about organizational goals, ways of achieving them, interpersonal relationship among persons etc. Hence, communication acts as basis for coordination.

Helps in Smooth Working of an Enterprise - Communication ensures smooth functioning of an enterprise. Life of an organization depends fully on communication. The activities of an organization shall come to a standstill if communication stops.

Acts as Basis of Decision Making - Communication helps in the process of decision making by providing all the necessary information. In the absence of communication of relevant information, one cannot take any meaningful decision.

Increases Managerial Efficiency

The various functions of the manager involve

(a) Providing information regarding the goals and objectives of an enterprise.

(b) Providing instructions

(d) Overseeing the work of the workers.

All these functions involve communication. Thus, communication is essential for effective performance of managerial functions.

Promotes Cooperation and Industrial Peace - To ensure smooth and efficient functioning of an organization is the main aim of the management. This is possible only when there is peace and harmony between the management and the workers. The two way communication helps in establishing same.

Establishes Effective Leadership - A good leader must possess efficient communication skills for influencing the behavior of the subordinates. Thus, communication is the basis of leadership.

Boosts Morale and Provides Motivation - An efficient communication system helps in motivating, inspiring and satisfying the subordinates. Moreover, it also helps in establishing participative and democratic type of management.

16. Signs and symbols in communication process (semiotics)

A sign is a mark or shape that always has a particular meaning, for example in mathematics or music.
It is the smallest unit of meaning.
It is able to communicate information to the one interpreting or decoding the sign.
It can work through any of the senses, visual, audio, touch or taste.

In each case, the sign can be broken into two parts, the signifier and the signified. The signifier is the thing, item, or code that we ‘read’ – so, a drawing, a word, a photo. Each signifier has a signified, the idea or meaning being expressed by that signifier. Only together do they form a sign.

A good example is the word ‘cool.’

The word ‘Cool’ – Signifier.

Temperature – Signified.

It might refer to something as ‘stylish’ or ‘popular’. The relationship between signifier and signified can change over time and in different contexts.

Types of signs

(a) Iconic sign - The icon is the simplest pattern that physically resembles what it stands for. Example picture of a computer on the desktop screen is an icon for the my computer

MY COMPUTER – Signifier

My computer picture - Signified

(b) Indexical sign

Dark cloud – Signifier

Rain – Signified

Indexical signs have a cause-and-effect relationship between the sign and the meaning of the sign. There is a direct link between the two. Dark cloud might be the indexical sign of rain

i) S(c) Symbolic sign

No parking (text) – Signifier

Graphic - Signified

Symbol is an object that represents idea, visual image. They take the form of words, sounds, visual images and are used to convey ideas.

A Symbolic sign has no resemblance between the signifier and the signified. The connection between them must be culturally learned. Numbers and alphabets are good examples. There’s nothing inherent in the number 9 to indicate what it represents. It must be culturally learned.

Symbols

Symbols are representations of an event, action, object, person, or place that can be used to communicate about the event, action, object, person or place
A symbol is a something that is accepted by certain group of people or general population.
It can be interpreted differently by people from different backgrounds.
A cross is an example of symbol that has been universally accepted as representing Christianity.
Symbol is a form of a sign that may have deep meaning. It can be interpreted in different ways since its meaning may not be universally shared by different people.
Without symbols we cannot transport an idea from our environment to our brain, from one part of our brain to another, or from one person to another.

17. Leadership qualities

Leadership – The ability to get work done with and through others, while at the same time winning their confidence, loyalty and cooperation
Effective leadership requires knowing how to communicate with various groups within an organization, including employees, managers, customers and investors.
Each group may require a different communication and leadership style, and although leaders must be able to adapt based on the group they are communicating with at the time
A leader should know himself and seek self improvement
A leader has to be technically proficient
He should seek responsibility and take responsibility for his action. He should not blame others
He should make sound and timely decision
He should be a good role model for his followers
Leader should know his people and look out their well being
He should know how to communicate with others
A leader should develop a sense of responsibility in his people
He should use the full capabilities of his team

18. Designing messages for different audiences

1. Identifiers. This kind of receivers is always in a hurry. A quick look on the “from” line is enough for them to consider the message for reading or deleting. So a catchy subject line will considerably increase the chances of your message to be read.

2. Skimmers. This category of your list opens your email message, but they want to read it as fast as it possible. They mainly read headlines, subheads, calls to action and according to this information they decide whether to act or not. That’s why such parts of your email message as headlines and so on should reflect the main subject of your message.

3. Readers. These subscribers basically read some sentences from the middle of your email message. After this procedure they are ready to decide whether they want to learn more or not about the specific topic discussed in email. This category is more likely to click-through, view all the images and also view Web version of email message.

4. HTML Readers. These subscribers prefer to view your email messages in HTML format, with all the images and graphics.

5. Text Readers. Appearance of portable devices considerably increased this kind of audience and made text format a necessary add on for email messages. Make sure that all the links are good in your text version and the text itself is clear and attractive.

6. Mobile Readers. This category appeared due to possibility that enables to use Internet through mobile phone. They are the most likely save the message to read it later on a laptop or desktop. So with just few sentences you have to persuade your subscribers to save the message and later click-through it.

7. Desk Readers. They are the most likely to act on your message. But remember that these subscribers can also change their audience from time to time, depending on different circumstances.

8. Searchers. Usually they are members of one of the categories above. They can notice something interesting in your email message but have no time to read it right away and that save the message to read later. For these readers you have to include the brand name in the sender address line and offer in the subject line.

19. Features of inter-personal communication

Interpersonal Communication can be defined selective, systemic, unique, processual transactions that allow people to reflect and build personal knowledge of one another and create shared meanings.

Selective - Responding to specific receiver(s). Don't want to communicate intimately with everyone.

Systematic - Takes place within various systems.

Unique - irreplaceable. Just as every person is unique, so is each friendship and romantic relationship.

Processual - Ongoing, continuous process. This means , first, that communication evolves over time, becoming more personal as people interact.

Transactional - Transmission and reception process.

Individual - Interpersonal communication evolves over time, is affected by our past, and influences our future.

Personal Knowledge - both parties create and interpret messages, are responsible for the communication's effectiveness, and must get to know each other personally.

Meaning Creating - Attaching meanings to the words we exchange requires knowledge of the other person and the relationship in which we are engaged,

20. Characteristics of inter-personal communication

Interpersonal communication is close, face-to-face interaction with an individual or small group of people.
It is characterized by exchanges of verbal communication, nonverbal gestures and listening.
An effective interpersonal communicator understands the impact of these elements of the communication and manages them well.
The verbal element of interpersonal communication is the delivery of a message through words.
Articulation, clarity, pace and volume are common traits (characteristic) of verbal interpersonal communication.
Articulation and clarity refer to an ability to speak clearly so that words and sentences are easy to follow.
Nonverbal communication includes body language, gestures and facial expressions.
Good interpersonal communicators use a positive facial expression, eye contact, good posture and natural gestures to add emphasis to certain points and to maintain the engagement of a listener.
The ability to listen well is also key in interpersonal communication.
Listening traits include looking a speaker in the eyes, giving him full attention and paraphrasing a message to confirm understanding.

21. Functions of inter-personal communication

Give and collect information.
Influence the attitudes and behavior of others.
Maintains relationships.
Make sense of the world and our experiences in it.
Express personal needs and understand the needs of others.
Give and receive emotional support.
Make decisions and solve problems.
Anticipate and predict behavior.
Regulate power.

22. Non-verbal communication

Body Language

It is the movement of body or its parts used to communicate information. A firm handshake, given with a warm, dry hand, is a great way to establish trust. A weak, clammy handshake conveys a lack of trustworthiness.

Facial Expressions

It is communication through face. The human face can produce thousands of different expressions such as happy, sadness, anger, angry, etc. Happiness is associated with an upturned mouth and slightly closed eyes; fear with an open mouth and wide-eyed stare. The effect of facial expressions in conversation is instantaneous.

Posture

The position in which someone holds their body when standing or sitting is posture. The position of our body relative to a chair or another person is another powerful silent messenger that conveys interest, aloofness, professionalism—or lack thereof. Head up, back straight (but not rigid) implies an upright character.

Touch (Haptics)

The meaning of a simple touch differs between individuals, genders, and cultures. It involves handshake, kiss, slap, hug, massage, hit, kick, etc. Each touch communicates a unique message like fear, disgust, love, encouragement, gratitude, sympathy, anger, pain, violence, etc.

Space (Proxemics)

It is also called as proxemics that deals with the use of space in communication. The subordinates maintain some distance (space) with his superior is the example for space in communication.

Gestures

Communication takes place through the movement of part of the body such as hand, leg, head is called gestures. Arms crossed over the chest, nail biting, head tilted to one side, hand placed on the cheek are the examples of gestures. However, the meaning of some gestures can be very different across cultures. While the OK sign made with the hand, for example, conveys a positive message in English-speaking countries, it’s consider offensive in countries such as Germany, Russia, and Brazil. So, it’s important to be careful of how you use gestures to avoid misinterpretation.

Eye contact

Since the visual sense is dominant for most people, eye contact is an especially important type of nonverbal communication. The way you look at someone can communicate many things, including interest, affection, hostility, or attraction. Eye contact is also important in maintaining the flow of conversation and for gauging the other person’s interest and response.

Paralinguistics

Paralinguistics refers to vocal communication that is separate from actual language. This includes factors such as tone of voice, loudness, inflection, and pitch. Consider the powerful effect that tone of voice can have on the meaning of a sentence. When said in a strong tone of voice, listeners might interpret approval and enthusiasm.

Appearance

Our choice of color, clothing, hairstyles, and other factors affecting appearance are also considered a means of nonverbal communication. Uniforms, for example, can be used to transmit a tremendous amount of information about a person. A soldier will don fatigues, a police officer will wear a uniform, and a doctor will wear a white lab coat. At a mere glance, these outfits tell people what a person does for a living.

Artifacts

Objects and images are also tools that can be used to communicate nonverbally. On an online forum, for example, you might select an avatar to represent your identity online and to communicate information about who you are and the things you like. People often spend a great deal of time developing a particular image and surrounding themselves with objects designed to convey information about the things that are important to them.

23. Aristotle model of communication

While exploring the human nature scientifically, Aristotle developed a linear model of communication for oral communication known as Aristotle’s Model of communication. This is considered as the first model of communication and was proposed before 300 B.C.

· Aristotle Model is mainly focused on speaker and speech.

· It can be broadly divided into 5 primary elements: Speaker, Speech, Occasion, Audience and Effect.

· The Aristotle’s communication model is a speaker centered model as the speaker has the most important role in it and is the only one active.

· It is the speaker’s role to deliver a speech to the audience. The role of the audience is passive, influenced by the speech. This makes the communication process one way, from speaker to receiver.

· The speaker must prepare his speech well, so that the audience be persuaded or influenced from the speech.

· For instance, a politician (speaker) gives a speech to get votes from the civilians (audience) at the time of election (occasion). The audience only vote if they are influenced by the things the politician says in this speech (effect) so the content must be very impressive to influence the mass and the speaker must design the message very carefully.

24. Rhetoric (Modes of persuasion)

Rhetoric is the study of communication and persuasion and different message or speech should be made for different audiences at different situations to get desired effects.
It describes the three modes of persuasion, namely logos, pathos, and ethos. These modes of persuasion always influence each other during conversations.

Ethos

Persuasion is achieved by the speaker's personal character
Ethos is about the writer or speaker’s credibility and degree of authority, especially in relation to the subject at hand.
A doctor’s ethos is the result of years of study and training. Due to his qualifications, a doctor’s words involve a significant degree of authority.
One’s ethos can be damaged - For example, the reputable politician may be found out when corruption scandals come to light he/she will lose audience support.

Tips for building ethos in communication:

Use words that suit the target group
Keep communication professional
Conduct research before words are presented as facts
Use recommendations from qualified experts
Make logical connections and avoid fallacies (misleading)

Pathos

Persuasion may come through the hearers, when the speech stirs (mix) their emotions.
The literal translation of pathos is emotion. In the rhetoric, pathos refers to the audience and the way in which they react to the speaker’s message
The idea behind pathos is that the audience must feel that they are communicated with.
In certain situations, they want to feel more confident, in others more sad, angry, or emotional.

Tips for effectively addressing emotions:

People’s involvement is stimulated by humour. Always keep different types of humour in mind
Use images or other visual materials to evoke strong emotions
Pay attention to the modulation and tempo of voice in order to elicit enthusiasm or anxiety

Logos

Persuasion is effected through the speech itself when we have proved a truth.
The direct translation of logos is logic, but in rhetoric it refers to the speaker’s message and more specifically the facts, statements, and other elements that comprise the argument.
The appeal to logic also means that paragraphs and arguments must be properly ordered.
Facts, statistics and logical reasoning are especially important here.

When analyzing logos, always ask yourself:

What is the context? What conditions are relevant?
What are the potential counter-arguments?
Is there any evidence that supports my argument? Always mention this
Do I correctly avoid generalizations and am I being specific enough?

25. Ideation

Ideation is the creative process of generating, developing, and communicating new ideas
Where an idea is understood as a basic element of thought that can be either visual, concrete, or abstract.
Ideation comprises all stages of a thought cycle, from innovation, to development, to actualization.
Ideation can be conducted by individuals, organizations, or crowds.
It is an essential part of the design process.

Methods of ideation

Problem solution is the most simple method of progress, where someone has found a problem and as a result, solves it.
Derivative idea involves taking something that already exists and changing it.
A symbiotic method of idea creation is when multiple ideas are combined, using different elements of each to make a whole.
A revolutionary idea breaks away from traditional thought and creates a brand new perspective.
Targeted innovation deals with a direct path of discovery. This is often accompanied by intensive research in order to have a distinct and almost expected resolution.

26. Shannon and Weavers mathematical model of communication

1. Sender (Information Source)

The model starts with the sender. They are the person (or object, or thing) who has the information to begin with. The sender starts the process by choosing a message to send. A sender can send a message in multiple different ways: it may be orally (through spoken word), in writing, through body language, music, etc.

Example: A person reading a newscast on the nightly news. They will choose what to say and how to say it before the newscast begins.

2. Encoder (Transmitter)

The encoder is the machine (or person) that converts the idea into signals that can be sent from the sender to the receiver. The Shannon model was designed originally to explain communication through means such as telephone and computers which encode our words using codes like binary digits or radio waves. However, the encoder can also be a person that turns an idea into spoken words, written words, or sign language to communicate an idea to someone.

Examples: The encoder might be a telephone, which converts our voice into binary 1s and 0s to be sent down the telephone lines (the channel). Another encode might be a radio station, which converts voice into waves to be sent via radio to someone.

3. Channel

The channel of communication is the infrastructure that gets information from the sender and transmitter through to the decoder and receiver. We sometimes also call this the ‘medium’.

Examples: A person sending an email is using the world wide web (internet) as a medium. A person talking on a landline phone is using cables and electrical wires as their channel.

4. Noise

Noise interrupts a message while it’s on the way from the sender to the receiver. It’s named after the idea that ‘noise’ could interrupt our understanding of a message. There are two types of noise: internal and external.

Internal noise happens when a sender makes a mistake encoding a message or a receiver makes a mistake decoding the message.

External noise happens when something external impedes the message. It may include the crackling of a poorly tuned radio, an interruption in a television broadcast, or a failed internet connection.

5. Decoder

Decoding is the exact opposite of encoding. Shannon and Weaver made this model in reference to communication that happens through devices like telephones.

Examples: Decoders can include computers that turn binary packets of 1s and 0s into pixels on a screen that make words, a telephone that turns signals such as digits or waves back into sounds.

6. Receiver (Destination)

The receiver is the end-point of Shannon and Weaver’s original linear framework. This is the step where the person finally gets the message, or what’s left of it after accounting for noise.

Examples: Examples of a receiver might be: the person on the other end of a telephone, the person reading an email you sent them, an automated payments system online that has received credit card details for payment, etc.

7. Feedback

The ‘feedback’ step was not originally proposed by Shannon and Weaver in 1948. Weaver came up with the feedback step in response to criticism of the linear nature of the approach. (‘Linear’ means that the messages are only going one way).

Feedback occurs when the receiver of the message responds to the sender in order to close the communication loop.

27. Transactional Analysis of inter-personal communication

Transactional analysis is a techniques used to help people better understand their own and other’s behavior, especially in interpersonal relationships
When people interact they do so in one of three different ego states.
An ego state is a specific way of thinking, feeling and behaving and each ego state has its origin in specific regions of the brain.
People can behave from their Parent Ego State, Adult Ego State, or Child Ego State.
At any one time, our actions come from one of these three ego states.
1.      The Parent: The Parent is like a tape recorder. It is a collection of pre-recorded, pre-judged, prejudiced codes for living. These people tend to talk to people and treat others like children. The characteristics of a person with parent ego state are judgemental, rule maker, over protective, and indispensible. When a person is in the Parent ego state, she thinks, feels and behaves like one of her parents or someone who took their place. The Parent decides, without reasoning, how to react to situations, what is good or bad, and how people should live. The Parent judges for or against and can be controlling or supportive. When the Parent is critical it is called the Critical Parent. When it is supportive it is called the Nurturing Parent.

2.      The Adult: The adult ego state is authentic, direct, reality based, fact seeking and problem solving. They assume that human beings as equal, worthy and responsible. The process of adult ego state formation goes through one’s own experiences and continuously updating attitudes left over from childhood. People with adult ego state, gather relevant information, carefully analyze it, generate alternatives and make logical choices. When in the Adult ego state the person uses logical thinking to solve problems.

3.      The Child: When we are in the Child ego state we act like the child we once were. We aren’t just putting on an act; we think, feel, see, hear and react as a three or five or eight-year-old child. The child ego state is characterized by very immature behavior. When the Child is hateful or loving, impulsive, spontaneous or playful it is called the Natural Child. When it is thoughtful, creative or imaginative it is called the Little Professor. When it is fearful, guilty or ashamed it is called the Adapted Child. The Child has all the feelings; fear, love, anger, joy, sadness, shame and so on.

Complementary transactions Crossed transactions

Transactions can proceed from the Parent, Adult or Child of one person to the Parent, Adult or Child of another person.

Since the Adult Ego State is all about logic and rationality, we would ideally like to ensure that all communications in the workplace are Adult – Adult.

In a crossed transaction, the most frequently problematic issue is the Parent – Child communication. In this crossed example above, where you (the Sender) are speaking to one of your staff (the Receiver), it is coming across as a Parent – Child transaction.

A complimentary transaction involves the same ego state in each person. In a crossed transaction the transactional response is addressed to an ego state different from the one which started the stimulus. Communication can continue between two people as long as transactions are complementary

28. Significance of body language in inter-personal communication
Kinesics or study of body language must be understood by all. Whether it is an interview or a presentation, one must be aware of how to use body language effectively.

Facial Expressions

It is communication through face. The human face can produce thousands of different expressions such as happy, sadness, anger, angry, etc. Happiness is associated with an upturned mouth and slightly closed eyes; fear with an open mouth and wide-eyed stare. The effect of facial expressions in conversation is instantaneous.

Posture

The position in which someone holds their body when standing or sitting is posture. The position of our body relative to a chair or another person is another powerful silent messenger that conveys interest, aloofness, professionalism—or lack thereof. Head up, back straight (but not rigid) implies an upright character.

Gestures

Communication takes place through the movement of part of the body such as hand, leg, head is called gestures. Arms crossed over the chest, nail biting, head tilted to one side, hand placed on the cheek are the examples of gestures. However, the meaning of some gestures can be very different across cultures. While the OK sign made with the hand, for example, conveys a positive message in English-speaking countries, it’s consider offensive in countries such as Germany, Russia, and Brazil. So, it’s important to be careful of how you use gestures to avoid misinterpretation.

Eye contact

Since the visual sense is dominant for most people, eye contact is an especially important type of nonverbal communication. The way you look at someone can communicate many things, including interest, affection, hostility, or attraction. Eye contact is also important in maintaining the flow of conversation and for gauging the other person’s interest and response.

Handshake

It is the movement of hands used to communicate information. A firm handshake, given with a warm, dry hand, is a great way to establish trust. A weak, clammy handshake conveys a lack of trustworthiness.

Crossing your Arms

Crossing your arms could imply that a person is not open to new ideas / opinion especially in case of giving a presentation. However, in a one-on-one interview if the interviewer has his / her arms crossed, the candidate could do the same.

29. Importance of feedback in communication process
Feedback is the response to the communicated message.
Feedback makes communication meaningful
It sustain the communication process
It tells communication is making sense or not
It helps to plan what next to be one or say
It completes the whole process of communication and makes it continuous
Communication will be useless without feedback
It is a basis for measuring the effectiveness of communication
Feedback paves way for new idea generation
It helps to understand the view and opinion of the viewer
Feedback gets confirmed that the message is rightly sent and can understand the success or failure of communication

30. Lasswell model of communication

The Lasswell Communication Model describes verbal communication and consists of five elements. Who says What, in Which channel, to Whom, with What effect? This model is also called a ‘linear model of communication’, ‘uni-directional process’ or ‘action model, because it describes a one-way process within communication.

Who?

This is the communicator, also called the sender, who formulates and spreads a message - The perfume company wanted to present themselves as a modern company.

What?

This is the content of the message or the message that the sender spreads - The perfume is available on online shop and is now active on social media.

Which channel?

The channel describes the medium or media that is/are used to convey and spread the message - The medium can consist of several communication tools, mass media and social media such as Twitter and Instagram.

To whom?

This describes the receiver(s), such as a target group or an individual - These are girls and women between 15 and 25 years old who don’t go to perfume shops, but often order things online.

Which effect?

The effect is the result the message leads to – The audience should quickly decide to order perfume via the Internet

31. Communication shapes our identities
Communication builds identity through the cognitive process of social learning
It consists on the mimicry of emotions, behaviors, and attitudes that we see in others.
It is only through interaction with the environment, that we actually learn to identify our personality traits.
Communication is precisely that; the interaction with our immediate environment: parents, friends, teachers, animals, nature. If there is no communication, there is no interaction
Identity has a tremendous impact on the communication process in a number of ways. How we communicate, as well as how our communication is received by others, can be shaped by our identities and the identities of others.
Individuals bring their self-images or identities to each communicative encounter, every communication interaction is affected by their identities. For example, when elderly people converse with teenagers, both groups may have to accommodate for differences in their experiences and language use.
Communication can also be used to put down other identities and create tension between groups.
Identity plays an important role in intercultural communication. As more and more businesses have international branches and subsidiaries, workers are increasingly likely to have contact with people from other cultures.
In the United States we have television stations such as Black Entertainment Television and Telemundo and magazines like Ebony and Out, which are targeted to groups based on their race, age, gender, or sexuality.
We also have entertainment venues such as Disneyland and Club Med that are developed specifically for families, romantic couples, and singles. In this identity-based climate, individuals often communicate primarily with others who share their identities.
Finally, identity is a key site in which individual and societal forces come together to shape communication experiences. Identity is vital to how meaning is created in communication.

32. Creative thinking
Creative thinking is the ability to look at things differently, and find new ways of solving problems.
It includes problem solving, writing, visual art, communication skills, and open-mindedness.
It is the ability to think differently to see a problem or issue from a new angle or perspective
It is used to find a new solution or even to see that the problem does not necessarily need a solution
The need of creative thinking arises because our brains naturally tend to fall into certain short cuts.
It is the definition of “thinking outside the box.”
Creative thinking can help departments and organizations move in more productive directions.
Creative thinking skills can be developed by solving riddles, being aware of assumptions, and through play.

33. Lateral thinking
Lateral thinking is a manner of solving problems using an indirect and creative approach via reasoning that is not immediately obvious (clear).
It involves ideas that may not be obtainable using only traditional step-by-step logic.
Critical thinking is primarily concerned with judging the true value of statements and seeking errors whereas lateral thinking focuses more on the "movement value" of statements and ideas.
A person uses lateral thinking to move from one known idea to new ideas.
It essentially means being able to think creatively or "outside the box" in order to solve a problem.
Usually, logical thinking is used to solve problems in a direct, straightforward way (also known as vertical thinking).
Lateral thinking however, looks at things from a sideways perspective (also known as horizontal thinking), in order to find answers that aren't immediately apparent (visible).

34. SMCR model of communication

Berlo’s SMCR Model of Communication includes four components that describe the communication process. The different components in the model are influenced by various factors.

Sender

The sender of the message is the source who creates and sends the message to the receiver. The source is the start of the communication process and is the person who encodes the message. Factors that may influence the sender are also applicable to the receiver. Berlo’s SMCR Model of Communication identifies the following factors that affect the source:

·        Communication skills - Communication skills include: reading, listening, speaking etc.

·        Attitude - One’s attitude in relationship to the audience, receiver and subject changes the meaning and consequence of the message.

· Knowledge - Familiarity with the subject of the message makes communication more effective.

·   Social systems - Values, beliefs, religion and rules influence the way in which the sender communicates the message, alongside location and circumstances.

· Culture - Cultural differences may result in the message being interpreted differently.

Message

The message is the package of information or meaning that is sent from sender to receiver. The message can be sent in various forms, such as audio, speech, text, video or other media. The sender of the messages always wants the receiver to interpret the message in a certain way. The source’s intention is therefore translated into a coded message. The receiver should understand the message with reasonable accuracy. The message is influenced by:

· Content - The content of the message from beginning to end.

· Elements - Elements are (non)verbal aspects, such as gestures and signs, that may influence the message.

· Treatment - Treatment refers to the way in which the message is sent, the message’s packaging.

· Structure - As the word suggests, the structure of the message refers to the way in which it is structured.

· Code - The code of the message is the form in which the message is sent. This may include text, language, video, gestures, music, etc.

Channel

The channel is the medium used to send the message. The medium must be able to be picked up by the sensory system of the receiver and may therefore involve vision, sound, smell, taste or touch. Humans have the following senses:

Hearing – hears are used to hear audio messages

Seeing – eyes are used to seeing the visuals and understand the message

Touching – hanging, shaking

Smelling – perfume, food

Tasting – through this channel the taste of the food is conveyed

Mass communication always involves technical tools, such as phones, the Internet and television. In these cases, the transmitted information is assimilated via vision and sound.

Receiver

The receiver is the person who receives and subsequently decodes the coded message. In a linear communication process, the receiver is always located at the end. In order to make communication as effective and smooth as possible, Berlo’s SMCR Model of Communication assumes the receiver’s thinking pattern must be in accordance with that of the sender. The same factors therefore influence this component in Berlo’s SMCR Model of Communication. After all, the receiver decodes the message him/herself and gives it their own meaning.

35. Importance of team communication
Communication plays a very important role in team building and extracting the best out of the team members.
Verbal communication sometimes may create misunderstandings and confusions, thus it is always better to rely on written communication for better clarity and transparency.
Effective Communication reduces the chances of conflicts and fights among team members.
One of the major benefits of team communication is providing clarity around the projects the team is working on.
Communicating within teams can also help colleagues to understand the issues or roadblocks that are affecting progress.
Successful communication in groups and teams leads to higher productivity and better overall business results.
One of the long-term benefits of team communication is that it helps colleagues build trust and establish strong relationships.

36. Steps in decision making process
Group decision making is a type of participatory process in which multiple individuals acting collectively, analyze problems or situations, consider and evaluate alternative courses of action, and select from among the alternatives a solution or solutions.

1. Identify the decision to be made. It is important for a group to understand clearly what you are trying to decide so you have a goal on which to focus your discussions.

2. Analyze the issue under discussion. Once you have defined your goal (i.e., the decision to be made or the problem to be overcome), examine the data and resources that you already have, and identify what additional information you may need.

3. Establish criteria. Identify the criteria or conditions that would determine whether a chosen solution is successful. Ideally, a solution will be feasible, move the group forward, and meet the needs of every group member. You may want to rank the criteria in order of importance

4. Brainstorm potential solutions. Using the resources and information collected above, brainstorm for potential solutions to the problem or decision identified in step 1. This involves collecting as many ideas as possible. At this stage, ideas should not be criticized or evaluated.

5. Evaluate options and select the best one. Once you have a list of potential solutions, you are now ready to evaluate them for the best alternative according to the criteria identified in step 3. Remember that you may be able to combine ideas to create a solution.

6. Implement the solution. This involves identifying the resources necessary to implement the decision, as well as the potential obstacles, then taking action.

7. Monitor and evaluate the outcome. Based on the criteria identified in step 3, evaluate whether the decision was successful. If not, revisit step 4 to evaluate the other options or generate new ones.

37. How cultural differences affects non-verbal communication

Eye contact

In many Asian cultures, avoiding eye contact is seen as a sign of respect. However, those in Latin and North America consider eye contact important for conveying equality among individuals. In Ghana, if a young child looks an adult in the eye, it is considered an act of disobedience.

Touch

In America, using a firm handshake is considered appropriate to greet a stranger or another business professional. In France, however, it is common to kiss someone you greet on both cheeks. Touching children on the head is fine in North America. In the Middle East, the left hand is usually used to handle bodily hygiene.

Gestures

Individuals in the United States use the “OK” sign to convey that something is acceptable. In Japan, the same hand symbol means “money.” Argentinians, Belgians, the French and the Portuguese all use the symbol to mean “zero” or “nothing.”

Physical Space

The Japanese are less likely to react strongly to an accidental touch by a stranger than Americans. Less personal space is also needed in areas such as Latin America, and, in the context of one-on-one conversations, the Middle East.

Facial Expressions

In Latin America the gesture is often considered a romantic or sexual invitation. The Yoruba people in Nigeria wink at their children if they want them to leave the room. And the Chinese consider the gesture rude.

Posture

Posture can convey power structures, attitudes and levels of civility. In America, standing with hands on the hips may suggest power or pride, but in Argentina, it may suggest anger or a challenge.

Paralanguage

“Paralanguage” refers to factors of speech such as accent, pitch range, volume or articulation. In Britain people use volume to convey anger, while in India, they use it to command attention. Japanese women make a point of raising the pitch of their voices to differentiate themselves from men.

38. Uses and Gratification
Uses and gratifications theory (UGT theory) is an approach to understanding why and how people actively seek out specific media to satisfy specific needs. UGT is an audience-centered approach to understanding mass communication. It assumes that audience members are not passive consumers of media.
Diverging from other media effect theories that question "what does media do to people?", UGT focuses on "what do people do with media?" It postulates (put forward) that media is a highly available product and the audiences are the consumers of the same product.
The driving question of UGT is: Why do people use media and what do they use them for? UGT discusses how users deliberately choose media that will satisfy given needs and allow one to enhance knowledge, relaxation, social interactions/companionship, diversion, or escape.
It assumes that audience members are not passive consumers of media. Rather, the audience has power over their media consumption and assumes an active role in interpreting and integrating media into their own lives. UGT holds that audiences are responsible for choosing media to meet their desires and needs to achieve gratification.

There are several needs and gratification for people. They are categorized into five needs.

Cognitive needs

People use media for acquiring knowledge, information, facts, etc. Different people have different needs. For example, quiz programs on television give on factual knowledge; to know about current affairs people need to watch the news regularly; search engines on the internet people can browse for any topic easily.

Affective needs

It includes all kinds of emotions, pleasure and moods of the people. People use media; say television, to satisfy their emotional needs. The best example would be when people get emotional or sometimes even they cry for a sad scene while watching the movie/soap opera.

Personal Integrative needs

This is the self-esteem need. People watch television and assure themselves that they have a respectable status in society. For example, people watch advertisements in the media like jewelry ads, furniture ads, apparel ads, etc. and buy these products so that they can change their lifestyle.

Social Integrative needs

It encompasses the need to socialize with family, friends and relations in society. People may start watching a particular programme, not because they have any self interest, but because their neighbor/friend watches it such that both the parties may have something in common to discuss.

Tension free needs

People sometimes use the media as a means to escapism from the real world and to relieve from tension and stress. For example, people tend to relax while watching television, listening to the radio, surfing the internet, etc.

The needs are specific in nature to the individual and how the media satisfies the need is subjective. For example, some people may watch the news to relax while others may get tensed or agitated by the same. The media is the same, but people use it for different needs.

39. Social construction of reality theory
Sociologists generally accept that reality is different for each individual.
The term social construction of reality refers to the theory that the way we present ourselves to other people is shaped partly by our interactions with others, as well as by our life experiences.
The notion of the social construction of reality is not to say that things in our social world are not real.
We have built them from our imagination
It is our socialization process that we learn what to consider real, important, valuable and necessary
An example of a social construct is money or the concept of currency, as people in society have agreed to give it importance/value.
Another example of a social construction is the concept of self/self-identity.
Our perceptions of reality are colored by our beliefs and backgrounds.
What is real depends on what is socially acceptable.
Example: The wealthy individual has learned through interactions with others that spending money on one’s pets is a worthy expense. His reality is one of pride. The minimum-wage worker has learned through interactions with others spending that much money on a pet is a negative thing, so his perception of the situation is entirely different.

40. The mass line of concept of communication
“The line of communication from the masses to the masses.”
Mass-line communication is the way to receive ideas from the masses (the general population of workers) and create policies that would fulfill their needs.
The core idea is that the masses fundamentally know what needs to be done.
But their thinking and actions are confused.
Marxist-Leninist-Maoist philosophy and theory of governance allow ideas from the masses to be processed through the Communist Party.
Ideas are gathered from the masses. They are analyzed in terms of philosophy, science, strategy, tactics, leadership, and organizational theory.
Party then presents its interpretation as policies.
The goal of the process is unification of the nation through consolidation of power.

41. Functions of communication models
The communication model refers to the visual representation of the communication process.
The communication model performs certain functions in developing communication skills and efficiency.
Communication model represents various elements involved in sending and receiving message.
Communication model is to help in conducting research in the field of communication.
It is to predict or forecast the success or failure of a particular communication process. One can find out the causes of success or failure of communication.
Communication model helps to understand the communication process easily and logically.
It shows how information flows form one person to another in the organization.
Communication process is a complex issue. Through a model, this complex issue can be presented easily.

42. Communication barriers

Language Differences: The language differences between the speakers lead to communication breakdown. Same word may mean different to different individuals.

Information Overload: Too much of information in a meeting or conference will make the communication less effective.

Inattention: At times we just not listen, but only hear. For example a traveler may pay attention to one “NO PARKING” sign, but if such sign is put all over the city, he no longer listens to it. Thus, repetitive messages should be ignored for effective communication.

Noise: Communication is also affected a lot by noise to distractions. Physical distractions are also there such as, poor lightning, uncomfortable sitting, unhygienic room also affects communication in a meeting.

Channel noise: Technical problem in the channel may affect transmission of message. Improper printing on paper, noisy transmission in radio and television are example of channel noise

Semantic noise: It is misunderstanding of message by the receiver. The sender creates and sends the message that is not understand by the receiver in the same way

Emotions: Emotional state at a particular point of time also affects communication.

Poor retention: One can’t always retain what is being told specially if he is not interested or not attentive. This leads to communication breakdown

Misunderstanding of non verbal communication such as body language, facial expressions also a barrier to communication

Interpersonal relationship: How we perceive communication is affected by the past experience with the individual

Cultural differences: Breakdown in communication can also be caused by cultural differences.

43. Barriers in public communication

Physical and physiological barriers include distance, background noise, poor or malfunctioning equipment, bad hearing, poor eyesight.
Speaking different languages, having strong accents, using slang or jargon can frustrate communication
Not making eye contact is a sure way of raising doubt in listeners and losing their attention
Too much information can confuse audience
If the speaker is not prepared, lack the facts, using Power Point presentation too much, the listeners will feel let down, even disrespected.
Too much of talking boring the audience
Lack of confidence in delivering the content

44. Need and importance of team work
A team is a small number of people with complementary skills who are committed to a common purpose, performance goal and approach for which they hold themselves mutually accountable

A teamwork environment promotes an atmosphere that fosters friendship and loyalty. These close-knit relationships motivate employees in parallel and align them to work harder, cooperate and be supportive of one another.

Realistic, achievable goals can be established for the team and individual members
Team members commit to support each other
Team members understand one another’s priorities
Communication is open
Problem solving is more effective
Performance feedback is more meaningful
Conflict is understood as normal
Balance is maintained between group productivity
The team is recognized for outstanding results
Members are encouraged to test their abilities and try out ideas
Team members recognize the importance of disciplined work habits
Learning to work effectively as a team in one unit is good preparation for working as a team with other units

45. Advantages and disadvantages of non-verbal communication

Advantages
Complementary: Non-verbal cues complement a verbal message by adding to its meaning.
Easy presentation: Information can be easily presented in non-verbal communication through using visual, audio-visual and silent means of non-verbal communication.
Substituting: Non-verbal messages may substitute for the verbal message especially if it is blocked by noise, interruption, long-distance, etc. for example; gestures-finger to lips to indicate need for quiet, facial expressions- a nod instead of a yes.
Repeat: Used to repeat the verbal message (e.g. point in a direction while stating directions.)
Help to illiterate people: This type of communication use gestures, facial expressions, eye contact, proximity, touching, etc. and without using any spoken or written word. So, it is very much helpful for illiterate people.
Help to handicapped people: Non-verbal cues of communication greatly help in handicapped people especially to deaf people. Deaf people exchange messages through the movements of hands, fingers, eyeballs, etc.
Attractive presentation: Non-verbal communication is based on visual, picture, graph, sign, etc. that can be seen very much attractive.
Reducing wastage of time: The message of non-verbal communication reached the receiver very fast. For this reason, it reduces the wastage of valuable time of the communicator.
Quick expression of message: Non-verbal cues of communication like sign and symbol can also communicate some messages very quickly than written or oral messages.

Disadvantages
Vague and imprecise: Non-verbal communication is quite vague and imprecise. No dictionary can accurately classify them. Their meaning varies not only by culture and context but by the degree of intention.
Continuous: It is possible to stop talking in verbal communication, but it is generally not possible to stop nonverbal cues.
Multi-channel: while watching someone’s eyes, you may miss something significant in a hand gesture. Everything is happening at once and therefore it may be confusing to try to keep up with everything.
Culture-bound: Gestures seen as positive in one culture may be seen as obscene in another culture.
Long conversations are not possible: In non-verbal communication, long conversation and necessary explanations are not possible.
Difficult to understand: Difficult to understand and requires a lot of repetitions in non-verbal communication.
Not everybody prefers: Everybody does not prefer to communicate through non-verbal communication with others. Sometimes it cannot create an impression upon people or listeners.
Lack of formality: Non-verbal communication does not follow any rules, formality or structure like other communication.
Costly: In some cases, non-verbal communication involves huge costs. For example, neon signs, power point presentations, cinema, etc are very much costly compared to other forms of communication.
Distortion of information: Since it uses gestures, facial expressions, eye contact, touch, sign, sound, paralanguage, etc. for communicating with others, there is a great possibility in distortion of information.

46. Types of communication skills
Being able to communicate effectively is perhaps the most important of all life skills. It is enables us to pass information to other people and understand what is said to us
Interpersonal communication skills – It is the skill we use when engage in face-to-face communication with one or more other people
Verbal communication - It is all about what we say. It can be both written and spoken. The words we use in verbal communication should be understood by the receiver. Use short and simple sentences with a young child or with someone who does not speak our own language
Non verbal communication – we actually communicate more information using non verbal communication. This includes non verbal signal, gestures, facial expression, body language, tone of voice and our appearance
Listening skill – Communication is a two way process. Listening is an essential part of receiving information. Careful listening avoids misunderstanding. Listening should be thought of as a skill.
Presentation skills – Presentations are far more than simple standing up in front of a screen and talking through a set of slides. It includes the way it is presented to impress the audience
Writing skills – Communication skills are not limited to direct interaction with other people and the spoken word. It includes the ability to write clearly and effectively is also important to communication. Poor written communication can be frustrating for the reader.
Personal skills – It is the skill that we use to maintain a healthy body and mind. But they can also enhance communication. Improving self-esteem and building confidence can help us to feel more positive and ability to communicate.

47. Osgood - Schramm model of communication

This communication model involves circular communication between two people.
Each person is both a sender and a receiver.
They are therefore able to communicate to one another, rather than only in one direction.
It insists that the communication is not only the passing of information from sender to receiver, it should be interpreted to understand the meaning of the message
As two-way communication keeps on going in its circular pattern, the semantic noise (misunderstanding the meaning of the message) is ideally reduced
The message must be encoded properly using right words and in order
When receiving a message, we need to use our reading skills, listening skills, etc. to decode the message
Once someone has decoded and interpreted a message, they can then go about encoding their own message to send back to the original sender. The receiver would decode and interpret it. The cycle continues.
Because both members of the communication have the capacity to encode, decode and interpret, this model views the two members of the conversation as equal participants.
This model therefore works very well to understand a face-to-face conversation

48. Significance of non-verbal communication
Various non-verbal cues of the speaker like physical movements, facial expression play an important role in expressing the inner meaning of the messages in face-to-face conversation.
Sometimes the appearance of the listeners and receivers conveys their attitudes, feelings, and thoughts regarding the messages they have read or heard.
Clothing, hairstyle, neatness, jewelry, and cosmetics of people convey impressions regarding their occupation, age, nationality, social or economic level, job status, etc.
Non-verbal cues also help to determine the relative status of persons working in an organization. For example, room size, location, furnishings, decorations, lightings, etc. indicate the position of a person in the organization.
Non-verbal cues can effectively express many true messages more accurately than those of any other method of communication. For example; the use of red, yellow and green lights and the use of various signs in controlling vehicles on the roads.
Non- verbal cues such as hands, fingers and eyeballs are used by the deaf people for communication purpose.
Communication with illiterate people through written media is impossible. In such situations, non-verbal methods like pictures, colors, graphs, signs, and symbols are used as the media of communication.
Non-verbal cues like sign and symbol communicate messages very quickly than written or oral media. For example; speed breaker, hospital and school zone, railway gate are easily conveyed through signs and symbols.
Sometimes quantitative information on any issue may require a lengthy written message. But this quantitative information can be presented easily and precisely through tables, graphs, charts, etc.

49. Importance of listening
Listening means to take in what is being said and organizing it sensibly for understanding
Communication is not complete without effective listening
An effective listener stimulates better speaking by the speaker
A good listener learns more than an indifferent listener
A good listener can restructure vague speaking in a way that produces clearer meaning
A good listener learns to detect assumptions and attitudes
Helps in taking instructions correctly without any errors
Solve customer’s complaints more effectively
It is an essential management and leadership skill
Good listening helps to take better decisions and make better policies in organization
Lack of proper listening can lead to embarrassing situations because of a gap in coordination and understanding

50. Facial expression in communication
It is a form of non verbal communication
Eyes, mouth, eyebrows, and forehead are involved in facial expression
Smiling is a positive emotion that tells the receiver happy
Eyebrows are brought together, forehead is rinkled indicating worry
Eye contact is an important sign of confidence and respect
Opening one’s eyes or mouth widely, indicating excitement and shock
Blinking eyes could signal that we are joking
Raising our eyebrows communicate that we are surprised

51. Human spatial communication (Proxemics)
Space is related to behavioral norms. The way people use space tells a lot about them. In a professional setting space is used to signal power and status. Space between the persons express control and authority.

The interpersonal distance of man in society is discussed under four headings
(a) Intimate space
Intimate distance is that which is used for very confidential communications.
This zone is distance is characterized by 0 to 2 feet of space between two individuals
An example of intimate distance is two people hugging, holding hands, or standing side-by-side
People in intimate distance share a unique level of comfort with one another.
Those who are not comfortable with someone who approaches them in the intimate zone will experience a great deal of social discomfort or awkwardness
Communication between friends and family members are comes under intimate
(b) Personal space
This zone stretches from 18 inches to 4 feet
Colleagues, peers are all comes under personal space
Instead of whispering sounds, normal talking takes place
Though this zone is personal, it is quite a relaxed and casual place
It permits spontaneous and unprogrammed communication
Sitting or standing so close brings you closer to the listener and gives the impression of friendliness and warmth
(c) Social space
Social events takes place in the radius of 4 to 12 feet
In this layer relationships are more official. You tend to become more formal
People are more cautious about their movements. You should be smart enough to conduct it with less emotion and more planning
Here the number of people decides whether it should be sitting-sitting or sitting-standing position
It is through experience that you decide which position to take
If the number of people is less and you can maintain eye contact, and you could go for in a sitting position
If you have to be authoritative and the audience is large, you can go far the sitting-standing position
(d) Public space
It is the space that characterizes how close we sit or stand to someone in the public place
An impersonal interaction about 12-25 feet away
It is maintaining distance from others in parks, roads, etc

52. Role of non-verbal communication in an organization
Nonverbal communication, or the expression of messages through facial expressions, gestures and body language, is essential to successful relationships in the workplace.
Examples of this type of communication include eye contact, posture and voice speed. Employees and managers should be aware of how they communicate in these nonverbal ways in the workplace.
These expressions come into play in the workplace, such as in a job interview. Someone who makes eye contact has open eyes and blinks appropriately, and in our culture this expresses that she is paying attention
Behaviors such as gesturing express nervousness, while speaking loudly and quickly expresses aggression.
Supervisors display power and dominance by having a larger office or having more space. “How a supervisor communicates power and dominance has a huge impact on job productivity
As an employee hoping to succeed in the workplace, should observe the behaviors of other people in the office such as how people dress and how fast they walk and try to follow them.
With clients, the key to good nonverbal communication is observing what the client needs and wants
Using fingers to indicate numeric amounts
Boss silently looking at the employees resting
Office decoration, chair and table arrangements for staff and visitors conveys many meanings such as working procedure of the office, superior, subordinates, manager, etc

53. Interpersonal communication in an organization
Interpersonal Communication is the process of transmitting information and common understanding from one person to another, which is very essential for the success of any organization.

Communicators

For any communication to take place there must to be at least two people involved (communicators). Communications are roughly two-way processes, with people sending and receiving messages to and from each other, in any interaction.

Message

Message not only means the speech used or information communicated, but also the non-verbal messages swapped such as facial expressions, tone of voice, gestures and body language. Non-verbal behavior can transmit supplementary information about the message vocalized.

Noise

What is received is dissimilar from what is proposed by the speaker. Even as physical ‘noise’ (sounds) can meddle with communication, things like the use of intricate jargon, unsuitable body language, negligence and cultural disparities can be considered ‘noise’ in the context of interpersonal communication.

Response

Response/feedback comprises messages the receiver replaces, which allows the sender to know how accurately the message has been received. The various types of feedback range from direct verbal statements, to subtle facial expressions or changes in posture which might point to the sender that the receiver experiences discomfort with the message. Response/feedback permits the sender to regulate, acclimatize or restate his/her message to facilitate communication.

Background

All communication is influenced by the background in which it takes place. However, apart from looking at where the interaction takes place, i.e., the situational background (room, office, etc.), the social background needs to be referred to, i.e., the roles, responsibilities and rank of the participants.

Channel

It refers to by which the message is transported from one person to another. In the case of inter-personal communication, the channels considered are speech and vision.

54. Sign language in communication
Sign languages are an extremely important communication tool for many deaf and hard-of-hearing people.
Sign languages are visual languages that use hand, facial and body movements as a means of communication.
There are over 135 different sign languages all around the world including American Sign Language (ASL), Australian Sign Language (Auslan) and British Sign Language (BSL).
Sign languages are used primarily by people who are deaf, they are also used by others, such as people who can hear but can’t speak.
Facial expressions in sign languages can express both emotion and grammatical information. For instance, eyebrows can be raised and lowered to change the structure of a sentence from a statement to a question.
People who know a sign language are often much better listeners. When using a sign language, a person must engage in constant eye contact with the person who is speaking.
Learning a sign language can be a helpful communication tool for some children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
Sign languages can be a great way to gossip without anyone else knowing, and passing on confidential information.
For a child, the stages of acquiring a sign language are the same as those for spoken language.
Sign languages can be used when the spoken word is physically impossible, such as talking underwater, talking through glass, from a distance, and at a loud music concert.
Sign languages can also let you talk to someone without interrupting others with noise.

55. Role of human communication in present scenario
Communication is important for human activities, such as knowledge and the topic of work and comfort.
In Communication we have a great influence on improvements in our quality of life
Language and communication are changing all the time. This is probably because of the fact that people change all the time. The importance of communication skills is undeniable because of this.
Communication is affected by technology. New words and terminologies are coined to fit the new discoveries of technology. So a person should have enough knowledge to continue upgrading his or her communication.
The importance of communication skills lies in the fact that those skills will help man progress with his language.
Communication is affected by culture. In the past, different cultures have been able to use whatever word they want to describe something. But the importance of communication skills help with the social interaction of people.
Each of us needs other people in order to live a full life.
The biggest importance of communication skills is the fact that it is the way through which our civilization continues to flourish.
The act of passing on knowledge from generation to generation is communication.
It is through communication that we manage to continue our discoveries.
Another importance of communication skills lies in expression. Man’s experiences in life need an outlet. People need some ways to express themselves in order for others to share their experiences.
Without communication skills, people would be unable to understand the desires of each other and mutual growth would be impossible.
It is through unity and solidarity that we man has reached these heights, and this is made possible through communication.
The everyday occurrences of violence resulting from misunderstandings show us just what would happen if communication skills were non-existent.
Communication skills are important because we need to be able to relate with the world around us.

56. Communication for human resource development
A human resources department is an integral part of many businesses. It carries out essential functions, such as hiring and retaining the best possible employees, staying on top of labor laws, managing compensation and benefits, and promoting employee development — all vital to the smooth running of a company.
Good communication skills are vital when hiring new employees. Knowing how to interview candidates to test his/her ability with the right questions.
A clear job description is the best way to attract qualified applicants who fully understand what the work entails.
Effective communication can help solve problems
Employees turn to the HR department when there is a problem with their job or they have a personal problem that could affect their job performance. In these situations, an HR executive must know what questions will draw out responses that paint the full picture.
If there is a problem between two employees, it is up to HR to negotiate a solution. Skilled negotiation takes excellent verbal and nonverbal communication skills.
During training sessions, an effective HR professional test how well employees learn new skills by designing employee training tools that are easy to understand and follow.
Human resources personnel need to encourage an environment of open communication and active listening. It is vital that staff members feel their concerns and ideas are really being heard.
It’s also important to have solid written communications skills. Management often communicates with personnel via email, newsletters and reports
The more proficiently HR professionals can communicate, the more they will be able to successfully help manage the workforce.

57. Leaders are good decision makers

Ambiguities delay work and become a reason of time wastage. A leader has to ensure all the task completes in due time. When the subordinates are feeling ambiguous (unclear), they will not perform properly. So, great decision-making skills help the leaders to maintain transparency through preciseness and clarity.

A leader takes the initiative to set a direction for the others with the confidence to ensure that there are no two teams within a team. So, only a decisive leader has these qualities to be able to take suitable actions whenever required.

There are times when the leader has to choose between the right and the wrong or two wrongs. Leaders are required to choose the lesser of the two evils. Only a good decision making leader can take the lead and stays ready to face the consequences of the actions of his/her team.

A good team is not the one where there are no conflicts at all. When human beings work together, disputes and differences will inevitably arise. So, a good leader with care and knowledge to help make peace after listening to concerns of both the parties and make final decisions and mutual understanding.

Effective leaders can assess the quality of alternatives and explain the reasons behind that evaluation.

When team leads do not make effective decisions, it gets easier for the team members below him/her in the hierarchy to rise above and replace them. If the leader cannot be firm in his decisions, he will struggle with leadership roles

58. Need and importance of understanding audience in group communication
A speaker should look at his or her own values, beliefs, attitudes, and biases that may influence his or her perception of others.
Guard against egocentrism. A speaker must not regard his or her own opinions or interests as being the most important or valid.
Look at others to understand their background, attitudes, and beliefs.
Focus on audience demographics such as age, gender, sexual orientation, education, religion, and other relevant population characteristics to analyze the audience.
The depth of the audience analysis depends of the size of the intended audience and the method of delivery.

59. Applications (importance) of persuasion
We are persuaded by many things such as television commercial, friends, family, etc.
One of the most important things about running a business is being able to convince people to buy the product, using a combination of mental, physical and emotional props to ensure the sale.
It can be used by parents to get children to do things that they normally would not want to do such as cleaning their rooms or eating vegetables.
It can also be used in friendships and families to push one party into doing something good, like helping the elderly neighbor carrying in her groceries.
Like many other traits (characteristics) such as confidence for example, this is something that gets stronger and stronger every time you use it.
This is great in sales and emergency situations.
It can help you to win people over to your way of thinking
It helps to handle people without making them feel manipulated